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Apple IIe Owner's Manual
Chapter 1: Meet Your Apple IIe
Two words that get thrown around a lot in conversations about computers are hardware and
software.
Hardware refers to the computer, the disk drive, the monitor, and any other piece of equipment
you can see, touch, and connect to your computer. The individual hardware components that you
attach to your computer are called peripheral devices (because they are peripheral to the
computer itself). Peripheral device is a mouthful, so the expression is usually shortened to
device or peripheral.
Software refers to the instructions, called programs, that tell the computer what to do. You
can learn to write programs yourself, or you can buy programs ready-made on every subject from
planning investments to keeping track of students' grades.
Programs are recorded on disks. That's why a disk drive is an indispensible part of your
computer system it loads programs from disks into the computer, and it stores information on
disks so you can retrieve it later.
In a few minutes you're going to use a program called Apple Presents the Apple IIe: An
Introduction to learn about the computer, but first you've got to get your computer system set
up.
Already Set Up?
If you've already got your monitor and disk drive connected to your Apple IIe, you can skip
directly to Chapter 2.
Setting Up Your Computer System
If you haven't done so already, unpack your computer and make sure you've got everything.
Plugging In the Power Cord
Before you even think about plugging anything into your Apple IIe, make sure the computer power
switch is turned off. The power switch is in the right corner as you face the back of the
machine.
Plug the power cable into the Apple IIe. Eventually you'll be plugging the other end of the
power cord into a three-hole, grounded outlet, but as a safety precaution, leave it unplugged
until you finish connecting peripheral devices to your Apple IIe.
Do not plug in your Apple IIe power cord until you've read the important safety instructions
later in this chapter.
Important!
Your Apple IIe and its peripheral devices were FCC-certified under test conditions that include
use of shielded cables and connectors between system components. It is important that you use
shielded cables and connectors to reduce the possibility of causing interference to radio,
television, and other electronic devices.
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Connecting a Monitor
Plug one end of the monitor cable into the Apple IIe's monitor outlet on the far left as you
face the back of your computer. You can tell it's a monitor outlet because it's got a monitor
symbol right above it. Plug the other end of the monitor cable into the back of the monitor.
Plug the monitor power cable into a three-hole, grounded outlet.
Eventually you'll want to set your monitor on top of your Apple IIe, but for now, leave it on
the desk beside your computer so you'll be able to remove the Apple IIe cover to install other
devices.
Using a Television Set as a Monitor:
If you plan to use a television set as a monitor, you'll need a radio frequency (RF) modulator.
An RF modulator, available from your Apple dealer, modifies signals from the computer so your
TV can tune them in. RF modulators come with instructions that explain how to install them.
Inside Connections
As you may have noticed, there is no disk drive symbol on the back of the Apple IIe. That's
because disk drives, and lots of other peripheral devices, come with special interface cards
designed to plug into slots inside the computer case. Before you can connect your disk drive,
you'll need to pop the top of your Apple IIe.
Cards:
The disk drive's interface card is called a controller card. You may also hear the term
peripheral card, or just plain card.
Popping the Top
Wrap your fingers under the tabs that project from the back of the computer cover and pull up
firmly until the fasteners pop. Slide the cover back, away from the keyboard, then lift it off
and set it aside.
Try not to be dazzled by all the chips and resistors inside the case while you direct your
attention to the row of slots along the rear of the main circuit board. The main circuit board
is the sheet of green plastic that lines the bottom of the computer case. The slots are
numbered from 1 to 7 (from left to right). You'll be putting the disk drive controller card in
slot 6.
Important:
Make sure the tiny bulb labeled POWER ON to the left of slot 1 is off. If it is lit up, turn
off the computer's power switch and unplug the Apple IIe power cord before you do anything
else.
Connecting a Disk Drive
This section shows you how to connect an Apple DuoDisk drive to your Apple IIe.
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Other Disk Drives:
If you have a different type of disk drive, install it according to the instructions that came
with it.
Remove the plastic insert that covers opening 2 on the back panel of the computer by reaching
inside the computer case and pushing down and out on the tab that projects from the plastic
insert.
Hold the disk drive controller card over slot 6 so that the bare side of the card is facing the
power supply (the big metal box on the left). Gently but firmly push the gold fingers on the
card's edge into slot 6, rear edge first.
Then push the front edge down and gently rock the card from back to front until it is level and
firmly seated. Don't touch the gold fingers when you handle the card. (Oil from your fingers
could weaken the connection between the card and the computer.)
Hold the D-shaped connector (on the end of the cable extending from the disk drive controller
card) up to the inside opening in the back panel. Anchor the connector to the back panel using
the two screws and the wrench that came with the disk drive.
Connect one end of the disk drive cable to the connector now visible through the opening in the
back panel of the computer. Make sure the D-shapes are lined up the same way on both
connectors.
Then tighten the retaining screws with a small standard screwdriver.
Connect the other end of the disk drive cable to the outlet on the back of the disk drive.
Then tighten the retaining screws.
Attach the drive 1 label that came with your DuoDisk to the recess on the left. Attach the
drive 2 label to the recess on the right.
Connecting an Auxiliary Memory Card
In addition to the seven slots along the rear of the main circuit board there is a special slot
on the left side of the circuit board labeled AUX. CONNECTOR, short for auxiliary connector.
That slot is reserved for cards that increase the Apple IIe's memory and video capabilities
like the 80-Column Text Card, the Extended 80-Column Text Card, the Extended 80-Column
Text/AppleColor Adaptor Card, and other RAM cards.
An 80-Column Text Card makes it possible for the Apple IIe to display 80 characters per line
instead of the standard 40 characters per line. An Extended 80-Column Text Card gives you the
80-character-per-line display plus additional memory. (You'll learn all about memory in
Chapter 4, but essentially, having more memory makes it possible for you to use more
sophisticated programs on your Apple IIe.) An Extended 80-Column Text/AppleColor Adaptor Card
gives you the 80 characters per line, the extra memory, and allows you to connect an RGB color
monitor to your Apple IIe.
If you have one of these cards, install it in the AUX. CONNECTOR slot.
Be sure that the bare side of the card faces the power supply (the metal box to the left of the
AUX. CONNECTOR slot).
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Gently push the gold fingers on the card's edge into the AUX. CONNECTOR slot, rear edge first.
Then push the front edge down and gently rock the card from back to front until it is level and
firmly seated. Don't touch the gold fingers when you handle the card.
Replacing the Apple IIe Cover
When you finish connecting your disk drive (and 80-column card, if you have one), put the cover
back on the computer. When you've got the cover in place, press down firmly on the back
corners until you hear the fasteners pop shut on both sides.
Important Safety Instructions
You're almost ready to plug in your Apple IIe and get started, but first read these important
safety instructions.
This equipment is intended to be electrically grounded. Your Apple IIe is equipped with a
three-wire grounding plug a plug having a third (grounding) pin. This plug will fit only a
grounding-type AC outlet. This is a safety feature. If you are unable to insert the plug into
the outlet, contact a licensed electrician to replace the outlet with a properly grounded
outlet.
Do not defeat the purpose of the grounding plug!
For your own safety and the safety of your equipment, always take the following precautions:
Be sure the power plug is disconnected (disconnect by pulling the plug, not the cord)
Whenever you remove the cover and as long as the cover is off;
If the power cord or plug is frayed or otherwise damaged;
If anything is spilled into the case;
If your Apple IIe is exposed to rain or any other excess moisture;
If it has been dropped or if the case has been otherwise damaged;
If you suspect that your computer needs servicing or repair;
Whenever you clean the case (use only the recommended procedure given below).
Be sure that you always do the following:
Keep your Apple IIe away from sources of liquids, such as wash basins, bathtubs, shower stalls,
and so on.
Keep it protected from damp or wet weather, such as rain, snow, and so on.
Read all the installation instructions carefully before you plug in the product to a wall
socket.
Keep these instructions handy for reference by you and others.
Follow all instructions and warnings dealing with the Apple IIe.
Electrical equipment may be hazardous if misused. Operation of this product, or similar
products, must always be supervised by an adult. Do not allow children access to the interior
of any electrical product and do not permit them to handle any cables.
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To clean the case, do the following:
Disconnect the power plug. (Pull the plug, not the cord.)
Use a water-damp, clean, soft cloth. Wipe the surfaces lightly, but do not wipe the screen of
the monitor. For cleaning the monitor screen, use only the special cloth provided and do not
moisten it.
Plug In the Apple IIe Power Cord
Now that you've read the safety instructions, you can plug in the Apple IIe power cord, but
don't turn on the power yet.
Runaway Disk Drive:
At this point your computer power switch should still be off. If you jumped the gun and turned
the Apple IIe power switch on without the right kind of disk in the disk drive, you've got a
runaway disk drive on your hands. You can stop the whirring disk drive by holding down CONTROL
while you press RESET. When the whirring stops, turn off the power and follow the start up
instructions in the next section. (You could have stopped the disk drive just by turning off
the power, but for reasons you'll understand later, it's not a good habit to turn off the
computer while the disk drive is in gear. If you stopped it that way this time, don't panic.
It's only a problem when there's a disk in the disk drive.)
Connecting Other Peripheral Devices
Once you've stuck your first card in a slot, and learned how to anchor cable connectors to the
back panel of the Apple IIe, installing other devices is a snap. Just follow the installation
instructions that come with your printer, mouse, or other peripheral device, and keep these
general installation rules in mind:
Make sure the computer's power is off and that the power cord is unplugged before connecting
any device to your Apple IIe.
Make sure the bare side of the card faces the power supply (the big metal box on the left side
of the circuit board).
Install cards by rocking the card from back to front and not from side to side. Press down
firmly, but don't force it. Don't touch the gold fingers on the bottom of the card.
Put the card in the recommended slot. Unless the device's manual tells you otherwise.
When you're joining cables, make sure the pins on one connector line up with the holes on the
other connector. If you aren't careful, you could bend a pin or force a pin into the wrong
opening and damage the connector, the peripheral, or even the computer.
Avoid putting a card in slot 3 if you have a card in the AUX. CONNECTOR slot. Slot 3 was the
80-column card slot in earlier models of the Apple II and, for purposes of software
compatibility, a card in slot 3 will override a card in the AUX. CONNECTOR slot.
Need More Power?
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Many devices, including printers, monitors, and modems need to be plugged into three-hole,
grounded outlets. If you have more than two devices that need to be plugged into the wall, you
should get a power strip. A power strip, available at any electronics store, is like a wall
socket with four to eight outlets. Many power strips have an ON/OFF switch, so you can turn
all your devices on and off with one switch.
Stacking Peripherals
The Apple IIe and Apple peripherals are designed to take up the smallest possible amount of
desk space. You might want to put the DuoDisk on top of the Apple IIe and the monitor on top
of the DuoDisk.
Chapter 1 Summary
Hardware refers to the computer, disk drive, monitor, and other peripheral devices.
Software refers to the instructions, called programs, that tell the computer what to do.
Programs are recorded on disks.
Peripheral devices are things, like printers, that you can connect to your computer.
General Installation Tips
Remember these tips when installing peripherals:
Make sure the Apple IIe power is off and that the power cord is unplugged.
Make sure the bare side of peripheral cards face the power supply.
Install cards by rocking them back to front. Don't touch the gold fingers on the bottom of the
card.
Put cards in their recommended slots (printer card in slot 1, modem card in slot 2, mouse card
in slot 4, ProFile card in slot 5, disk drive card in slot 6, co-processor card in slot 7,
80-column card in AUX. CONNECTOR slot).
Make sure the pins on one connector line up with the holes on the other connector.
Chapter 2: Getting Started
The best way to learn about the Apple IIe is to start using it. So look for the disk labeled
An Introduction. This program will give you practice using the keyboard, and will teach you
some computer concepts and procedures common to hundreds of other Apple IIe programs.
Starting Up An Introduction
Follow these steps for starting up An Introduction:
Open drive 1 by pushing in on the latch. The disk drive door will pop up. If you find a
cardboard insert inside, remove and discard it. (While you're at it, check drive 2 for a
cardboard insert and discard it too.) From now on, the only thing you should put in your disk
drive is a disk and only one disk at a time.
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Which Is Drive 1?
On a DuoDisk, drive 1 is the drive on the left. If you have two or more Disk II disk drives,
drive 1 is the disk drive connected to the set of pins labeled DRIVE 1 on the controller card
in slot 6 inside the Apple IIe case.
Put the disk into the disk drive. Hold the disk by the label. Make sure the An Introduction
label is facing up, and that the label is the last part of the disk to enter the disk drive.
When the disk is all the way inside, push down on the latch until you hear it click shut. This
step is important. If you forget to close the disk drive door, the program won't run.
Turn on the monitor (or TV) power switch.
Reach around the left side of the computer and find the power switch in the lower-left corner.
Press the upper half of the switch to turn on the power. (The first time you do this, you may
have to crane your neck and look for the power switch, but eventually you'll learn to do it by
touch.)
When you turn on the power, several things will happen at once:
You'll hear a beep.
The power light (on the bottom row of the keyboard) will light up.
The light on the disk drive will light up.
You'll hear a whirring sound from the disk drive.
What's Going On?
Every time you turn on the power, your Apple IIe will check drive 1 for a program disk (a disk
with instructions telling it what to do). If it finds a program disk in drive 1, it copies the
program into the memory of the computer and starts carrying out the instructions in that
program one by one. In this case, the program is an educational one, An Introduction, but the
start up procedure is the same no matter what program you're using.
Troubleshooting
You'll find a complete troubleshooting guide at the end of this manual, but here are some
common problems in starting up.
No sound from the disk drive.
Turn off the power and make sure your disk drive is connected according to the instructions in
Chapter 1.
No picture on the screen.
Try adjusting the contrast knob on your monitor. If that's not the problem, make sure your
monitor is connected to your Apple IIe, that your monitor is turned on, and that your monitor
is plugged in.
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Power light on keyboard doesn't come on.
Make sure your Apple IIe is plugged in. If you're using a power strip, make sure the power
strip is plugged in and turned on.
Wrong disk drive starts whirring.
The disk drive that whirs when you turn on the power is drive 1. Turn off the power, put An
Introduction in drive 1 and start again.
Disk drive won't stop whirring.
Stop the disk drive by pressing CONTROL-RESET, turn off the power, put the disk labeled An
Introduction in drive 1, and start again.
You get the message: /vO ERROR.
Make sure you've got the right disk (An Introduction) in drive 1. If that's not the problem,
turn off the power and make sure your disk drive is connected properly, and start again.
Now take An Introduction out of the disk drive and put it back in its envelope for safekeeping,
but leave your computer turned on. You'll be using it again in a little while. (The computer
uses less power than a 100-watt light bulb, so you don't need to turn it off until you're
finished using it for the day.)
Keyboard Review
As you discovered when you went through An Introduction, the computer keyboard looks like a
typewriter keyboard, but it has several keys that typewriters don't have. Even the keys that
look familiar can behave in strange and apparently magical ways if the programmer decides he
wants them to. (In a game program, for example, you might be told to press the letter C when
you want your electronic monster to eat Cleveland, and to press the letter D when you want him
to crush Detroit. Typing C and D in a word processing program produces a considerably
different result.) The best way to find out how the keys work in a given program is to read
the manual that came with the program, but to give you a head start here's a description of the
most common uses for the special keys on the Apple IIe keyboard.
RETURN
Pressing Return means that you're ready to proceed. If you're typing something like a memo,
pressing Return moves the cursor to the next line.
ESC
Pressing Escape usually gets you back to the menu. Escape is short for escape, and that's what
it lets you do in most programs.
DELETE
With some programs, you can press DELETE to erase characters to the left of the cursor. (But
be careful how you position the cursor before you press DELETE because it erases by
backspacing. It doesn't erase the character under the cursor.)
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Apple Lore:
Early models of the Apple II didn't have a DELETE key, so don't be surprised if in some
programs you press DELETE and nothing happens. If DELETE doesn't work in a particular program,
the manual that came with the program will tell you how to erase characters some other way.
SHIFT and CAPS LOCK
The Shift key works just like the shift key on a typewriter. You hold it down while you type
another key, and it gives you either the uppercase version of letter keys or the upper
character on keys with two characters (like the number and punctuation keys in the top row).
If you want all capital letters, press Caps Lock. When Caps Lock is locked down, all the
letters you type are capitalized, but no other keys are affected. This makes it possible for
you to type numbers and capital letters without pressing and releasing the shift key all the
time.
Apple Lore:
Early models of the Apple II didn't have a Caps Lock key because you didn't have a choice
between uppercase and lowercase. Everything you typed came out capitalized. Consequently,
programs designed for early models of the Apple II don't recognize lowercase letters. To get
these programs to run correctly on your Apple IIe, you need to press Caps Lock down.
Keys That Move the Cursor
The cursor is a little square or dash that marks your place on the screen. It usually starts
out in the upper-left corner of the screen and moves to the right with every character you
type, showing you where the character you type next will appear. In many programs,
particularly word processing programs, when the cursor reaches the end of a line, it jumps to
the next line automatically (you don't have to press Return). This is called wraparound.
The Arrow Keys
If you discover a mistake in something you've typed, you can move the cursor to the mistake by
using the arrow keys located in the bottom-right corner of the keyboard. Pressing UP-ARROW
moves the cursor one line up. Pressing DOWN-ARROW moves the cursor one line down. Pressing
LEFT-ARROW moves the cursor one character to the left. And pressing RIGHT-ARROW moves the
cursor (surprise!) one character to the right.
Apple Lore:
Early models of the Apple II didn't have up and down arrow keys, so programmers who needed to
make the cursor move up and down took matters into their own hands and designated certain keys
on the keyboard to accomplish that function.
Usually they designated a set of four keys (that formed a cross) to be the up, down, left, and
right cursor moving keys.
If you run across a program that uses these keys instead of the arrow keys, you'll know that
you're dealing with a vintage Apple program. You won't have any trouble using the program on
your Apple IIe it will just take some getting used to.
TAB
Tab is another key that moves the cursor (in some programs), but it doesn't move the cursor one
character at a time. Pressing Tab moves the cursor forward a preset number of characters
usually eight. Some programs let you set your own tabs the way you can with a typewriter.
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Keys That Control Other Keys
Programmers use CONTROL, OPEN-APPLE, and the solid Apple key in combination with other keys to
perform special functions in their programs.
For example, a program might tell you to press OPEN-APPLE-P in order to print something. Since
key combinations vary from program to program, the only way to find out how a given program
uses CONTROL, OPEN-APPLE, and the solid Apple key is to read the manual furnished with the
program.
There are, however, two key combinations that have predictable results:
Pressing OPEN-APPLE-CONTROL-RESET restarts the computer.
Pressing the solid Apple key-CONTROL-RESET starts a self-diagnostic test to see if the Apple
IIe innards are in good working order. The test lasts only about 20 seconds. During that time,
moving patterns appear on the screen to let you know that the test is in progress. If the
Apple IIe is healthy, you'll get the message SYSTEM OK. If you get any other message, consult
your Apple dealer. (You don't need to perform this test unless you suspect something's wrong
with your computer.)
Keys That Can Be Confusing
Typists sometimes use the letters l and o interchangeably with the numbers 1 and 0. You can't
do that when you're using a computer. The computer interprets numbers and letters very
differently.
The SPACE bar is another key that can cause confusion. Pressing the SPACE bar inserts a space
character. It's important that you think of a space as a character so you don't use it
interchangeably with the right arrow which appears to produce the same result but doesn't.
Starting and Stopping the Apple IIe
There are two ways to start up Apple IIe programs. You use one method when the power is off,
the other when the power is already on.
Starting Up With the Power Off
Here's a review of the first startup method:
Put a program disk in drive 1.
Turn on the monitor.
Turn on the Apple IIe power.
Starting Up With the Power On
Use this method of starting up a program, or switching from one program to another, when the
power is already on. It reduces wear and tear on the power switch and other computer
components.
Make sure the disk drive light is off, then take the last disk you were using out of drive 1.
Put the program disk you want to use into drive 1.
Hold down OPEN APPLE and CONTROL while you press RESET, then release all three keys, starting
with RESET. (If it seems a little awkward, you're doing it right. If it were more convenient,
you might do it accidentally.)
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Turning the Power Off and On:
If you insist on turning the power off and on as a way of switching from one program to
another, wait at least 15 seconds from the time you turn off the power to the time you turn it
back on to give the computer's memory a chance to clear.
If you'd like, you can practice the OPEN-APPLE-CONTROL-RESET method of starting up using the
same disk you used before, An Introduction. When you see the title display, press Escape
(unless you feel like going through the disk again).
Stopping
Stopping is a pretty intuitive procedure. You turn off the power to the monitor and you turn
off the power to the Apple IIe. But there are a few things you should think about before
flipping the power switch.
Save your work. As you use your computer to write letters and such, a copy of your letter is
kept in the computer's memory (much more on this later). But it's kept in memory only as long
as the power is on. If you want a permanent copy of your composition, you must save it on a
disk before turning off the power.
Don't turn off the power until the disk drive light is off. The disk drive light tells you when
the disk drive is reading (retrieving something) and writing (recording something) on the disk.
If you turn off the computer while the disk drive light is on, you could damage the disk and
lose some of the information recorded on it. Wait until the light goes out before you turn off
the power.
If something goes wrong (see troubleshooting) and the disk drive light stays on for an
inordinately long time, you can stop the disk drive by holding down CONTROL while you press
RESET.
All About Disks
Over time you'll accumulate two kinds of disks: disks that contain programs (instructions that
tell the computer what to do), and disks that contain your data (the memos, budgets, lists, and
other stuff you compose at the computer keyboard).
Initially, program disks are more expensive than the blank disks you use to store data. But
once a disk contains your budgets and lists, it's worth as much as the time you spent entering
the data in the first place. In either case, it pays to take good care of your disks and to
make copies of important disks in case something ever happens to your original.
Anatomy of a Disk
Disks are circular sheets of plastic coated with metallic oxide. Information is recorded on
them magnetically much the way sound is recorded on cassette tape. They are sealed inside
black, plastic jackets that protect them from fingerprints and dust.
As you discovered when you started up An Introduction, you're supposed to put disks in the disk
drive jacket and all. The disk spins inside the jacket, and as it spins, a honeycomb material
inside the jacket cleans and lubricates the disk. Never remove a disk from its jacket (and
expect to use the disk again). Of course, if it's worth a few dollars to you, go ahead and
dissect a blank disk to see what's inside.
As the disk spins inside the jacket, every usable part of the disk passes under the oval cutout
in the disk jacket where the disk drive's read/write head can get at it. Avoid touching the
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disk through the oval cutout or you defeat the purpose of the jacket.
Both the DuoDisk and the Disk II drives are designed for 5 1/4-inch, single-sided,
single-density disks.
The Write-Enable Notch
The notch in the upper-right corner of the disk jacket is called the write-enable notch. If
that notch is covered, you can't write (save) things on the disk or otherwise change the
contents of the disk. All you can do is read (load) things from the disk. If the notch is
uncovered, you can write on it. (Writing doesn't take place through the notch. The notch just
lets the disk drive know whether or not it's OK to write on the disk.)
Many programs that you buy don't have a write-enable notch because the manufacturer doesn't
want you to change the contents of the disk by mistake. When you don't want the contents of
your data disks changed by mistake, you can cover the write-enable notch with a removable
write-protect tab. (You'll find sheets of write-protect tabs packed with boxes of blank
disks.)
Two-Sided Disks:
The training disk packed with this manual has information recorded on both sides. That's
possible because the disk is certified for double-sided use, and it's practical and economical
for disks like this one that won't be used on a daily basis. Most disks are designed for
single-sided use (the disk drive uses only one side of the disk at a time anyway), and you risk
losing valuable programs and information if you use them any other way. Blank disks are cheap
compared to the cost of reentering lost data, so don't cut corners by trying to use both sides
of disks designed for single-sided use.
Always put single-sided disks in the disk drive with the label facing up. If the disk doesn't
have a label, put it in the disk drive with the seams on the disk jacket facing down.
Care of Disks
Here are some general rules for handling disks:
Don't touch the disk (the part that's visible through the oval cutout).
Hold the disk by its label or any part of the jacket.
Store disks in the envelopes they came in.
Store disks vertically to keep dust from collecting on them.
Use a felt-tip pen to write on the disk label. Using a pencil or a ball-point pen can put
dents in the recording surface.
Don't use an eraser on a label. Eraser dust can damage the disk.
Don't attach paper clips to disks.
Keep disks away from direct sunlight, moisture, and extremes of heat and cold. On a hot day,
car trunks, dashboards, and glove compartments can be a disk's worst enemy.
Keep disks away from magnets or devices like telephones, television sets, and large motors.
(It's OK to lay them temporarily on the computer or disk drive.)
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If you follow these guidelines, your disks will last forever. (Actually they'll last an
average of 150 hours of in-use time which might as well be forever considering the few seconds
it takes to load information from a disk.) If you don't follow these guidelines, you'd better
hope you have a backup copy.
Copying Disks
Disks are sturdy enough to withstand hundreds of trips in and out of your disk drive, but they
won't survive a single hot afternoon on the dashboard of your car. That's why it's critical
that you take good care of your disks and make copies of important disks in case something ever
happens to your original.
Disks That Can't Be Copied:
Don't be surprised if you can't duplicate every program you buy. Many manufacturers copy
protect (make it impossible to copy) their disks to protect themselves from software pirates
who illegally duplicate and distribute their programs.
If a program you buy isn't copyable, the manufacturer generally provides one backup copy or
tells you how to replace a damaged program disk at a nominal cost.
You'll find a program for copying disks on the ProDOS User's Disk that came with your disk
drive. The program is relatively easy to use if you keep these points in mind:
The program makes reference to your source and destination volumes. Volume is just another
word for disk. The source volume is the disk you're copying from. The destination volume is
the disk you're copying to (either a blank disk or a disk that contains expendible
information).
You'll be asked to supply the location of your source and destination volumes by their slot and
drive numbers. The slot refers to the slot inside the computer that contains your disk drive
controller card. If you followed the disk drive installation instructions, the slot number
will be 6. If you're using a DuoDisk, the drive on the left is drive 1, and the drive on the
right is drive 2.
When the program asks you for a slot or drive number, it supplies a default (preset) response.
This default number will be used unless you type an alternative. To accept the default number,
press Return. To change the default, type over the character that appears on the display.
Copy An Introduction
Practice using the copy program on the ProDOS User's Disk by making a copy of An Introduction.
Important!
These instructions assume that you have a DuoDisk or a pair of disk drives. If you have a
single disk drive, watch for instructions on the screen that tell you when to swap your source
volume for your destination volume.
Start up the ProDOS User's Disk.
Press F (for ProDOS Filer <UTILITIES>)
Press V (for VOLUME COMMANDS).
Press C (for COPY A VOLUME).
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Press Return to indicate that your controller card is in slot 6.
Press Return to indicate that you'll be putting your source disk, An Introduction, in drive 1.
Press Return to indicate that your controller card is in slot 6.
Press Return to indicate that you'll be putting your destination disk in drive 2. If you don't
have a second drive, type 1. You'll see this message at the bottom of the display:
INSERT DISKS AND PRESS <RET>
Only Got One Drive?
You can make copies with a single disk drive it just takes a lot longer. Watch for instructions
on the display that tell you when to swap your source volume for your destination volume. If
you need more guidance, follow the instructions for Copying a Volume in the ProDOS User's
Manual.
Put your source disk, An Introduction, in drive 1 and your destination disk, a blank disk, in
drive 2 and press Return.
You'll hear some whirring and see the words FORMATTING, READING, and WRITING as the disk is
being copied.
When it's all over, you'll see this message:
COPY COMPLETE
When you see that message, take your new backup copy of An Introduction out of drive 2 and
label it with a felt-tip pen. (If you don't really want a backup copy of An Introduction, you
can use the copy you just made as a destination disk the next time you need to copy something.)
Problems?
If you have problems copying this or any other disk, consult the ProDOS User's Manual.
Chapter 2 Summary
Starting Up With the Power Off
Put a program disk in drive 1.
Turn on your monitor.
Turn on your Apple IIe.
Starting Up With the Power On
Put a program disk in drive 1
Hold down OPEN-APPLE and CONTROL while you press RESET.
Return: Indicates that you've finished reading or typing something and that you're ready to
proceed.
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Escape: Gets you back to a previous menu or out of what you're doing.
DELETE: Erases characters to the left of the cursor.
UP-ARROW, DOWN-ARROW, RIGHT-ARROW, and LEFT-ARROW: Move the cursor.
Caps Lock: Capitalizes all letters automatically.
CONTROL, OPEN-APPLE,: Make other keys behave differently.
Tab: Moves the cursor forward a preset number of characters (usually eight).
SPACE bar: Inserts a space character.
Shift: Gives you the uppercase version of letter keys or the upper character on two-character
keys.
Chapter 3: Application Programs
So far, you've been using the computer to learn about the computer. You can also use the
computer to keep track of student's grades, write memos, prepare business reports, do job
costing, keep personnel records, and learn foreign languages, among hundreds of other things.
The magic that transforms your computer from a teacher to a bookkeeper is the program you load
into it. Programs designed for a particular purpose or application are called application
programs. You can write them yourself or you can use ready-made programs as described in this
chapter.
Popular Application Programs
In the next few pages, you'll learn about nine types of application programs.
Business School Home
Accounting X
Communications X X X
Data Base X X X
Education X X
Entertainment X X
Graphics X X
Home Finance X
Spreadsheet X X
Word Processing X X X
Accounting
Accounting software does the same things a manual accounting system can do (general ledger,
accounts receivable, accounts payable, payroll, inventory), but with much greater speed,
accuracy, and control. The increased speed and accuracy allow you to get up-to-date reports
about your financial position as you need them, instead of waiting for monthly or quarterly
reports from your accountant.
A good accounting program can help you improve your cash flow management, boost your collection
rate of receivables, plan payments to take advantage of vendor discounts, maintain inventory
levels that minimize cash investment, and improve customer service.
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Most accounting software packages are designed around a general ledger. The other modules
(accounts receivable, for example) plug into the general ledger to allow automated posting.
This modular approach allows smaller businesses to start with a general ledger package alone
and add additional modules as they are needed.
Communications Software
With communications software and a modem, you can exchange messages with other computers and
information services over the phone lines.
Here are a few of the things you can do with communications software and a modem.
Access hundreds of data bases (called information services) each with a library's worth of
information.
Exchange mail with colleagues (who are similarly equipped with a computer, communications
software, and a modem).
Share business data with colleagues.
Transfer information between computers that would otherwise be incompatible.
Bank by phone.
Get information from the office's main computer while you work at home.
Get the latest stock quotes from an information service.
Shop by phone.
Receive public domain (free!) software from a computer bulletin board.
Besides letting you communicate with computers across the country, communications software lets
you communicate with computers across the room.
Information Services
There are two kinds of information services: general purpose information services, like The
Dow Jones News/Retrieval Service, The SourceSM, and CompuServe, and specialized services for
lawyers, journalists, stockbrokers, doctors, and others.
The Dow Jones News/Retrieval Service gives you up-to-the-minute information on 6000
corporations as well as current and historical stock quotes, money-market analysis and
forecasts, news highlights from The Wall Street Journal, and even movie reviews.
The Dow Jones service is one of the big three general purpose information services. The other
two are The Source and CompuServe. Like the Dow Jones service, The Source and CompuServe offer
news highlights and stock quotes, but business isn't their primary focus. With The Source and
CompuServe you can, for example, check airline schedules and make reservations, do your
shopping from computerized catalogs, do your banking, check the latest news, sports, weather
and movie reviews, exchange messages with other subscribers, and download (have the service
send you) public domain (free) software.
If you're interested in one of these information services, ask your dealer how you can
subscribe. He can tell you how to get your user ID, your password, and the local phone number
of the information service that interests you.
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Bulletin Boards
Bulletin boards came into being back in 1978 as a way for local computer club members to
exchange messages with each other and share programs by phone. Today there are over 300
computerized bulletin boards in the United States, and you don't have to belong to a computer
club to use one. All you need is a computer, a modem, communications software, and the phone
number of your local BBS (Bulletin Board System). You can get that from your computer dealer
(in some cases, he'll be a SYSOP, the system operator of a bulletin board), from a computer
club, or from one of the BBS articles that frequently appear in computer magazines.
Bulletin boards are popular for three reasons:
They're free. You don't have to subscribe or pay for connect time the way you do with an
information service.
They're a source of free software some of it professional quality, some of it hopelessly
bug-ridden.
They're a good way to meet people.
Data Base
Data base programs are for keeping track of lists of information: mailing lists, client
information, inventories, addresses, phone numbers, test results, itineraries, medical and
dental records any information you now store on forms or index cards.
Data is just a fancy word for information. A data base is a central clearing-house for
information. Once you write your information into a data base program, you can retrieve the
information any time you need it. You can also have the data base program cross reference that
information with other information in the data base. For example, you can retrieve a list of
all customers who placed orders last month, or a list of all students who scored 100% on at
least one test.
Businesses use data base programs to keep track of customer records and inventory. You can use
the same kind of program at home to keep a record of your valuables (for insurance purposes),
to catalog your stamp or coin collection, to keep membership records for a club, to keep
statistics on a sports team, and more.
Educational Software
Programs that teach are called educational software, or courseware.
Computers are good teachers because they give you a chance to learn at your own speed in an
interactive, entertaining way. To give you an idea of how entertaining a computer program can
be, there's a program that teaches touch typing in the guise of a shoot 'em up game. Letters
and words are fired at your spaceship from the four corners of the screen, and you have to type
the correct letter or word before the letters crash into your vehicle.
Educational software isn't just for kids. There are programs that help you prepare for college
entrance exams and that tutor you in foreign languages for your next trip abroad.
Computer-Aided Instruction
Teachers who want to try their hand at programming can use a programming language designed
especially for educators called PILOT, short for Programmed Inquiry, Learning, Or Teaching.
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PILOT lets you design your own courseware, or CAI (Computer-Aided Instruction).
More About Apples in Education
To get an idea of the number and variety of educational software packages available for the
Apple IIe, go to your local bookstore and thumb through one of the software directories that
describe and rank Apple II software. Most software directories devote a whole chapter to
educational software. At last count there were over 3000 educational programs available for
the Apple IIe.
Entertainment
Don't be ashamed. Lots of people rationalize their purchase of a computer with talk of word
processing and home budgets, but the first program they buy features a pair of jaws chasing gum
drops through a maze.
There are all sorts of games for the Apple IIe, ranging from computer simulations of board
games like Chess to adventure games sophisticated simulations that put you in a dungeon or on a
remote island and challenge you to find the hidden treasure while avoiding monsters, booby
traps, and other pitfalls.
Graphics
Business graphics programs convert numerical information monthly forecasts, regional figures,
departmental budgets into presentation-quality bar, line, pie, and scatter graphs. Graphics
generated with your Apple IIe can enhance presentations and even aid in business decisions
because pictures are easier to digest than statistics.
Less business-like graphics programs, like MousePaint™, turn your monitor into an easel
and your mouse into a paint brush, allowing you to create and save masterpieces. A graphics
program is to an artist what a word processor is to a writer it encourages you to try out a
variety of approaches before you commit your drawing to a hard copy. It makes it easy to
revise and rearrange until you're completely satisfied with your creation. For less artistic
types, there are graphics programs that come with a disk full of drawings that you can insert
into greeting cards, signs, and banners.
Home Finance
Home finance programs let you play what if... with your home budget the same way electronic
spreadsheet programs let financial planners play what if... with their multi-million-dollar
corporate budgets. Here are some of the things you can do with a home finance program:
Figure out mortgage payments and depreciation on your house.
Keep track of tax and auto records.
Prepare budgets for your church group or charity.
Evaluate repayment schedules on a new home or car.
Weigh the relative merits of money market, T-bill, stock market, and other investments.
Spreadsheet Programs
The first software best seller for personal computers was a program called VisiCalc that
computerized spreadsheets those sheets of paper divided into rows and columns that are to
business people what legal pads are to lawyers.
With the traditional spreadsheet, accountants and others who had to deal in numbers filled in
their asset and liability figures in pencil. Then, with the help of a calculator, they arrived
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at the bottom line. If any number changed, or if they wanted to try out a different pricing
strategy, it sent a ripple effect through the whole spreadsheet (which is why an eraser was as
critical to using a spreadsheet as a pencil and a calculator).
With electronic spreadsheets, you still have to fill in your assets and liabilities, but by
filling in formulas that define the interrelationships of all the assets and liabilities, you
can try out different pricing scenarios and let the program do all the recalculating for you.
With electronic spreadsheets you can play what if... until the cows come home, or at least
until your budget deadline rolls around. Spreadsheet programs take the drudgery out of
financial planning and leave you more time for creative financing.
Templates:
If you don't know how to figure out formulas for depreciation and such, you can get templates
that furnish the formulas so all you do is fill in a form.
Word Processing
They say that everyone is working on a screenplay or a novel these days, but even if you never
write anything longer than a memo, a book report, or the minutes from a PTA meeting, you'll
never use your typewriter again after you experience the ease of word processing.
Because it's so painless to edit with a word processing program, it encourages your best
writing efforts. (So, if you aren't working on your novel now, you'll probably start one once
you discover word processing.)
Here are just a few of the things you can do with a word processor:
Change letters, words, and sentences without retyping those parts of the document that haven't
changed.
Delete words and sentences, and the document will rearrange itself to fill up the holes in the
page.
Move paragraphs if you think your report would work better that way.
Change the margins of your document (after you've written it!) to make it look better or
longer.
Need Help With Spelling?
Some word processors come with companion programs that check and correct your spelling.
Integrated Software
Integrated software is a group of application programs (usually on one disk) designed to work
together and share data. A typical integrated software package includes word processing, data
base, and spreadsheet programs.
With integrated software, you can combine information created with different applications into
one document. For example, you can write a report with a word processing program, and add a
statistics section from a data base program and a budget section created with a spreadsheet
program.
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Another advantage of integrated software is that the commands you learn for one application
(like word processing) work the same way for the other applications on the disk. This shortens
the time it takes you to learn the programs and makes you productive a lot faster.
Industry Specific Software
Industry specific software, also called vertical market software, is software that caters to a
particular audience or profession. It's more expensive than general-purpose software, but
much, much cheaper than hiring a programmer to write software from scratch.
For lawyers there are programs that handle billing, help with research, and keep track of court
appearances and filing dates. For doctors there is data base software customized to deal with
patient histories, to help diagnose illnesses, and to match allergy symptoms to causes. Other
medical software handles billing and helps process insurance claims.
There are programs for manufacturing control, for scientific measurement and analysis, and for
virtually any area where there is a specialized need for calculating or data sorting.
Vertical market software isn't always listed in software catalogs, but you can find out what's
available by reading the software ads in professional journals, and by attending computer
seminars sponsored by your professional organization. The American Bar Association, for
example, has a Committee on Computers that sponsors users groups (computer clubs) for lawyers
and promotes conferences and seminars on the use of computers in the legal profession.
Choosing Application Programs
By now you've probably thought of lots of ways you can use the Apple IIe to lighten your
workload or help with your homework. The next step is to get some application programs and
learn how to use them. If you have a task in mind, but don't know the type of application
program that can handle it, talk to your dealer. The odds are he can help you because there's
an application for any task imaginable from tracking the space shuttle to tracking the acidity
in your barrels of wine.
Build your software collection gradually, the way you build your book and record libraries.
And choose software the way you choose books on the recommendations of friends.
There are over 16,000 programs for the Apple II family of computers, some from Apple, many more
from independent software developers. Ask your Apple dealer to help you choose the software
that meets your needs.
Users Groups
If you don't know many people who use computers, you should consider joining an Apple users
group. Computer-wise friends can cut your learning time in half and help you select the best
software for your needs. Joining a users group can also save you some money most user groups
have a library of free public domain software written by members of the group.
Computer Books and Magazines
If you're too shy or too busy to attend users group meetings, you can find out a lot about the
relative merits of different software packages by reading reviews in computer magazines and by
flipping through one of several software directories available for the Apple II family of
computers. Computer magazines are available at most newsstands. You'll find software
directories in the computer section at most bookstores.
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Behind the Scenes
The best application programs don't require you to know anything about how the computer works.
Using them is as easy as using a typewriter or a toaster. You put the program disk in drive 1,
turn on the power, and follow the instructions on the screen, as you did with An Introduction.
But understanding how the computer works how application programs give the computer its
personality as a word processor or a spreadsheet, or how your memos, budgets, and personnel
records are stored inside the memory of the computer will boost your confidence and make you
more productive and playful with your Apple IIe.
Chapter 3 Summary
Application programs are programs designed for a particular purpose, such as budgeting,
financial planning, or cataloging your butterfly collection.
Popular Applications
Accounting: for automating your general ledger, accounts receivable, accounts payable, payroll,
and inventory.
Communications: exchanging information with other computers and computer services by phone.
Data Base: for keeping track of lists (addresses, inventories, collections).
Education: for learning.
Entertainment: for fun.
Graphics: for charts, graphs, drawings.
Home Finance: for budgeting, portfolio management, tax planning.
Spreadsheet: for financial planning.
Word Processing: for generating letters, reports, books.
Integrated Software: a collection of programs (usually word processing, data base, and
spreadsheet) designed to share data.
Industry-specific Software: programs designed for a particular audience (doctors, lawyers, and
pig farmers).
Chapter 4: The Inside Story
When you connected your disk drive to your Apple IIe, you popped the top and got your first
look at the integrated circuits, or chips, inside the computer. In this chapter, you'll learn
what some of the chips do, and how they are used to process your data.
Start up The Inside Story to find out what makes your computer tick.
Here's a closer look at the components that put the Apple IIe through its paces.
The Microprocessor
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One of the most important chips on the main circuit board is the microprocessor. The
microprocessor is the brain of the computer system the chip that carries out the instructions
in the program one by one in the order that they appear. The Apple IIe has a 65C02
microprocessor.
RAM
The row of small chips are called random access memory chips or RAM. These chips store both
the programs you load into the computer and the data you're working with (memos, budgets,
personnel files, students' grades, and so on). The information in RAM is stored as electrical
impulses sort of like tiny light bulbs that can either be on or off. Each light bulb is called
a bit, and it takes eight of these bits to express each character on the keyboard. A series of
eight bits is called a byte. Because the information in RAM is stored electrically, it
disappears when the power is turned off. That's why it's important to think of RAM as a
temporary storage compartment.
The Apple IIe has 64K of RAM, which is roughly equivalent to 48 typed, double-spaced pages of
text. You can add additional RAM by plugging an auxiliary memory card into the slot marked
AUX. CONNECTOR on the main circuit board.
K:
Computer memory is measure in K's, short for kilobyte. (A kilobyte is 1024 bytes.) As you
know, one byte equals one character. 64K is 65,536 characters. Part of that 64K is taken up by
the application program you're using. The rest is available to store the business report or
budget you're working on.
This part of the computer's memory is called random access memory because the microprocessor
can access any location within RAM at random. It doesn't have to start at the first memory
location and plod through until it reaches the location it's after.
RAM is sometimes called main memory, or just plain memory. Think of it as a grid of thousands
of boxes, each identified by a number called its address. Each box can hold one piece of code
an instruction for the microprocessor, a character (the H in Hello Mom, for example), or
another address in memory (which tells the microprocessor to jump back to square 1 or wherever
and follow the instruction it finds there).
Scrolling:
Of course there's a lot more room in memory than there is room on the screen to display it.
Picture the information in memory as being written on a paper scroll, and the monitor's screen
as a window in front of the scroll. To see a different part of the scroll, move the cursor to
the bottom of the screen using the arrow keys. Press the arrow key again and a new line or
column will come into view. This is called scrolling.
ROM
Whereas RAM chips store both programs and information that change every time you use your
computer (one day a letter, the next day a budget), ROM chips contain information that never
changes. And unlike RAM, the information in ROM stays intact when the power goes off, which is
just as well because one of the programs in ROM tells the microprocessor how to get started
when the power is turned on.
In addition to the program that gets the computer started when the power first comes on, ROM
contains a programming language called BASIC, an acronym for Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code. BASIC is easy to learn because it lets you give instructions to the computer
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in a language similar to English. An interpreter program, also in ROM, then translates those
English-like terms into machine language a binary code of zeros and ones that is the only
language the microprocessor can really understand.
Other Languages:
There are other programming languages you can use with the Apple IIe (Logo and Pascal, for
example), but they aren't stored in ROM. You have to load them into RAM from disks before you
can write programs (the same way you have to load application programs into RAM before you can
use them).
How It Works
Armed with this rudimentary knowledge of what RAM, ROM, and the microprocessor do, you'll be
able to understand how programs are loaded into memory from disks, and how the information you
create while using a program is saved on and retrieved from disks. You don't need to know
everything about how the computer works to run programs successfully anymore than you need to
know how an internal combustion engine works to drive a car but you'll use your computer with
greater confidence and creativity once you have a feel for how programs and data move through
the computer system.
Starting Up
The first thing that happens when you flip the Apple IIe power switch is that a program in ROM
tells the microprocessor to check drive 1 for a disk with an operating system. An operating
system is a set of instructions that tell the computer how to work with the information on
disks. Because the operating system controls the way information is retrieved from and stored
on disks, it is also called a disk operating system.
Once the operating system is in RAM, the operating system tells the microprocessor to load the
application program into RAM. Once that happens, the computer takes on its personality as a
Spanish teacher, a financial planner, or an arcade game, depending on what kind of program disk
you have in drive 1.
Two-Stage Startup:
Some programs, like AppleWorks, are too big to fit on one disk, so they come on two disks. The
first disk, usually labeled the Startup or Boot disk, contains the operating system. The
second disk, usually labeled the Program disk, contains the program. Starting up a two-disk
program is called a two-stage boot or a two-stage startup. To execute a two-stage startup, all
you do is put the startup disk in drive 1 and turn on the computer. A message on the screen
will tell you to exchange the program disk for the startup disk and to press some key (usually
Return) to start using the program.
Creating Something From Scratch
At this point, you start creating your letter or your budget, and everything you type (your
data) is stored in RAM.
Saving Data
It's important for you to remember that the information stored in RAM is only stored
temporarily. Before you turn off the computer or switch to another program, you must save your
work (data) on a disk. When you save your work on a disk, it's called a file, and you give it
a filename by which you'll be able to retrieve it later.