Elenco Electronic Playground 50-in-1 Experiments User Manual

753057

Copyright © 2010, 1998 ELENCO

®

ELECTRONIC

PLAYGROUND

TM

and LEARNING CENTER

MODEL EP-50

ELENCO

®

Wheeling, IL, USA

-2-

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Definition of Terms Page 3

Answers to Quizzes 5

Introduction to Basic Components 6

Experiment #1: The Light Bulb 8

More About Resistors 10

Experiment #2: Brightness Control 11

Experiment #3: Resistors in Series 12

Experiment #4: Parallel Pipes 13

Experiment #4B: Comparison of Parallel Currents 14

Experiment #5: Combined Circuit 15

Experiment #6: Water Detector 16

Introduction to Capacitors 17

Experiment #7: Slow Light Bulb 19

Experiment #8: Small Dominates Large 20

Experiment #9: Large Dominates Small 21

Experiment #10: Make Your Own Battery 22

Test Your Knowledge #1 23

Introduction to Diodes 23

Experiment #11: One - Way Current 24

Experiment #12: One - Way Light Bulbs 25

Introduction to Transistors 26

Experiment #13: The Electronic Switch 27

Experiment #14: The Current Amplifier 28

Experiment #15: The Substitute 29

Experiment #16:

Standard Transistor Biasing Circuit

30

Experiment #17: Very Slow Light Bulb 31

Experiment #18: The Darlington 32

Experiment #19: The Finger Touch Lamp 33

Experiment #20: The Battery Immunizer 34

Experiment #21: The Voltmeter 35

Experiment #22: 1.5 Volt Battery Tester 36

Experiment #23: 9 Volt Battery Tester 37

Experiment #24: The Anti-Capacitor 38

Introduction to Inductors and Transformers 40

Test Your Knowledge #2 41

Experiment #25: The Magnetic Bridge 42

Experiment #26: The Lighthouse 43

Experiment #27: Electronic Sound 44

Experiment #28: The Alarm 46

Experiment #29: Morse Code 47

Experiment #30: Siren 48

Experiment #31: Electronic Rain 49

Experiment #32: The Space Gun 50

Experiment #33: Electronic Noisemaker 51

Experiment #34: Drawing Resistors 52

Experiment #35: Electronic Kazoo 53

Experiment #36: Electronic Keyboard 54

Experiment #37: Fun with Water 55

Experiment #38: Transistor Radio 56

Experiment #39: Radio Announcer 58

Experiment #40: Radio Jammer / Metal Detector 59

Experiment #41: Blinking Lights 60

Experiment #42: Noisy Blinker 61

Experiment #43: One Shot 62

Experiment #44: Alarm With Shut - Off Timer 63

Experiment #45: The Flip - Flop 64

Experiment #46: Finger Touch Lamp With Memory 65

Experiment #47: This OR That 66

Experiment #48: Neither This NOR That 67

Experiment #49: This AND That 68

Experiment #50: Audio AND, NAND 69

Experiment #51: Logic Combination 70

Test Your Knowledge #3 71

Troubleshooting Guide 71

For Further Reading 71

-3-

DEFINITION OF TERMS

(Most of these will be introduced and explained during the experiments).

AC Common abbreviation for

alternating current.

Alternating Current A current that is constantly

changing.

AM Amplitude modulation. The

amplitude of the radio signal is
varied depending on the
information being sent.

Amp Shortened name for ampere.
Ampere (A) The unit of measure for electric

current. Commonly shortened
to amp.

Amplitude Strength or level of something.
Analogy A similarity in some ways.
AND Gate A type of digital circuit which

gives a HIGH output only if all
of its inputs are HIGH.

Antenna Inductors used for sending or

receiving radio signals.

Astable Multivibrator A type of transistor

configuration in which only one
transistor is on at a time.

Atom The smallest particle of a

chemical element, made up of
electrons, protons, etc.

Audio Electrical energy representing

voice or music.

Base The controlling input of an NPN

bipolar junction transistor.

Battery A device which uses a

chemical reaction to create an
electric charge across a
material.

Bias The state of the DC voltages

across a diode or transistor.

Bipolar Junction
Transistor (BJT) A widely used type of transistor.
Bistable Switch A type of transistor

configuration, also known as
the flip-flop.

BJT Common abbreviation for

Bipolar Junction Transistor.

Capacitance The ability to store electric

charge.

Capacitor An electrical component that

can store electrical pressure
(voltage) for periods of time.

Carbon A chemical element used to

make resistors.

Clockwise In the direction in which the

hands of a clock rotate.

Coil When something is wound in a

spiral. In electronics this
describes inductors, which are
coiled wires.

Collector The controlled input of an NPN

bipolar junction transistor.

Color Code A method for marking resistors

using colored bands.

Conductor A material that has low

electrical resistance.

Counter-Clockwise Opposite the direction in which

the hands of a clock rotate.

Current A measure of how fast

electrons are flowing in a wire
or how fast water is flowing in a
pipe.

Darlington A transistor configuration which

has high current gain and input
resistance.

DC Common abbreviation for direct

current.

Decode To recover a message.
Detector A device or circuit which finds

something.

Diaphragm A flexible wall.
Differential Pair A type of transistor

configuration.

Digital Circuit A wide range of circuits in

which all inputs and outputs
have only two states, such as
high/low.

Diode An electronic device that allows

current to flow in only one
direction.

Direct Current A current that is constant and

not changing.

Disc Capacitor A type of capacitor that has low

capacitance and is used mostly
in high frequency circuits.

Electric Field The region of electric attraction

or repulsion around a constant
voltage. This is usually
associated with the dielectric in
a capacitor.

Electricity A flow of electrons between

atoms due to an electrical
charge across the material.

Electrolytic Capacitor A type of capacitor that has

high capacitance and is used
mostly in low frequency
circuits. It has polarity
markings.

Electron A sub-atomic particle that has

an electrical charge.

Electronics The science of electricity and

its applications.

Emitter The output of an NPN bipolar

junction transistor.

Encode To put a message into a format

which is easier to transmit.

Farad, (F) The unit of measure for

capacitance.

Feedback To adjust the input to

something based on what its
output is doing.

Flip-Flop A type of transistor

configuration is which the
output changes every time it
receives an input pulse.

FM Frequency modulation. The

frequency of the radio signal is
varied depending on the
information being sent.

Forward-Biased The state of a diode when

current is flowing through it.

Frequency The rate at which something

repeats.

Friction The rubbing of one object

against another. It generates
heat.

Gallium Arsenide A chemical element that is

used as a semiconductor.

Generator A device which uses steam or

water pressure to move a
magnet near a wire, creating an
electric current in the wire.

Germanium A chemical element that is

used as a semiconductor.

Ground A common term for the 0V or

“

–” side of a battery or

generator.

Henry (H) The unit of measure for

Inductance.

Inductance

The ability of a wire to create an
induced voltage when the current
varies, due to magnetic effects.

Inductor A component that opposes

changes in electrical current.

Insulator A material that has high

electrical resistance.

Integrated Circuit A type of circuit in which

transistors, diodes, resistors,
and capacitors are all
constructed on a
semiconductor base.

Kilo- (K) A prefix used in the metric

system. It means a thousand of
something.

LED Common abbreviation for light

emitting diode.

Light Emitting Diode A diode made from gallium

arsenide that has a turn-on
energy so high that light is
generated when current flows
through it.

Magnetic Field The region of magnetic

attraction or repulsion around a
magnet or an AC current. This
is usually associated with an
inductor or transformer.

Magnetism A force of attraction between

certain metals. Electric
currents also have magnetic
properties.

Meg- (M) A prefix used in the metric

system. It means a million of
something.

Micro- (μ) A prefix used in the metric

system. It means a millionth
(0.000,001) of something.

Microphone A device which converts sound

waves into electrical energy.

Milli- (m) A prefix used in the metric

system. It means a thousandth
(0.001) of something.

Modulation Methods used for encoding

radio signals with information.

Momentum The power of a moving object.
Morse Code A code used to send messages

with long or short transmit
bursts.

NAND Gate A type of digital circuit which

gives a HIGH output if some of
its inputs are LOW.

NOR Gate A type of digital circuit which

gives a HIGH output if none of
its inputs are HIGH.

NOT Gate A type of digital circuit whose

output is opposite its input.

NPN Negative-Positive-Negative, a

type of transistor construction.

Ohm’s Law

The relationship between
voltage, current, and resistance.

Ohm, (Ω) The unit of measure for

resistance.

OR Gate A type of digital circuit which

gives a HIGH output if any of its
inputs are HIGH.

Oscillator A circuit that uses feedback to

generate an AC output.

Parallel When several electrical

components are connected
between the same points in the
circuit.

-4-

Pico- (p) A prefix used in the metric

system. It means a millionth of
a millionth (0.000,000,000,001)
of something.

Pitch The musical term for frequency.
Printed Circuit Board A board used for mounting

electrical components.
Components are connected
using metal traces “printed” on
the board instead of wires.

Receiver The device which is receiving a

message (usually with radio).

Resistance The electrical friction between

an electric current and the
material it is flowing through;
the loss of energy from
electrons as they move
between atoms of the material.

Resistor Components used to control

the flow of electricity in a circuit.
They are made of carbon.

Resistor-Transistor­Logic (RTL) A type of circuit arrangement

used to construct digital gates.

Reverse-Biased When there is a voltage in the

direction of high-resistance
across a diode.

Saturation The state of a transistor when

the circuit resistances, not the
transistor itself, are limiting
the current.

Schematic A drawing of an electrical circuit

that uses symbols for all the
components.

Semiconductor A material that has more

resistance than conductors but
less than insulators. It is used
to construct diodes, transistors,
and integrated circuits.

Series When electrical components

are connected one after the
other.

Short Circuit When wires from different parts

of a circuit (or different circuits)
connect accidentally.

Silicon The chemical element most

commonly used as a
semiconductor.

Solder A tin-lead metal that becomes a

liquid when heated to above
360 degrees. In addition to
having low resistance like other
metals, solder also provides a
strong mounting that can
withstand shocks.

Speaker A device which converts

electrical energy into sound.

Switch A device to connect (“closed” or

“on”) or disconnect (“open” or
“off”) wires in an electric circuit.

Transformer A device which uses two coils

to change the AC voltage and
current (increasing one while
decreasing the other).

Transient Temporary. Used to describe

DC changes to circuits.

Transistor An electronic device that uses

a small amount of current to
control a large amount of
current.

Transmitter The device which is sending a

message (usually with radio).

Truth Table A table which lists all the

possible combinations of inputs
and outputs for a digital circuit.

Tungsten A highly resistive material used

in light bulbs.

Tuning Capacitor A capacitor whose value is

varied by rotating conductive
plates over a dielectric.

Variable Resistor A resistor with an additional

arm contact that can move
along the resistive material and
tap off the desired resistance.

Voltage A measure of how strong an

electric charge across a
material is.

Voltage Divider A resistor configuration to

create a lower voltage.

Volts (V) The unit of measure for voltage.

-5-

QUIZ ANSWERS

First Quiz: 1. electrons; 2. short; 3. battery; 4. increase; 5. insulators, conductors; 6. decreases, increases; 7. decreases;

8. voltage; 9. alternating, direct; 10. increases, decreases.

Second Quiz: 1. reverse; 2. LEDs; 3. amplifier; 4. integrated; 5. saturated; 6. alternating, direct; 7. decreases, increases;

8. magnetic; 9. increases; 10. twice

Third Quiz: 1. feedback; 2. air, pressure; 3. decreases; 4. radio; 5. inductors; 6. OR; 7. NAND

-6-

INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COMPONENTS

Welcome to the exciting world of Electronics! Before
starting the first experiment, let’s learn about some of the
basic electronic components. Electricity is a flow of sub­atomic (very, very, very, small) particles, called
electrons. The electrons move from atom to atom when
an electrical charge is applied across the material.
Electronics will be easier to understand if you think of the
flow of electricity through circuits as water flowing
through pipes (this will be referred to as the water pipe
analogy).

Wires:

Wires can be thought of as large, smooth pipes
that allow water to pass through easily. Wires are made
of metals, usually copper, that offer very low resistance to
the flow of electricity. When wires from different parts of
a circuit connect accidentally we have a short circuit or
simply a short. You probably know from the movies that
this usually means trouble. You must always make sure
that the metal from different wires never touches except
at springs where the wires are connecting to each other

.

The electric current, expressed in amperes (A, named
after Andre Ampere who studied the relationship
between electricity and magnetism) or milliamps (mA,
1/1000 of an ampere), is a measure of how fast electrons
are flowing in a wire just as a water current describes
how fast water is flowing in a pipe.

The Battery:

To make water flow through a pipe we need
a pump. To make electricity flow through wires we use a
battery or a generator to create an electrical charge
across the wires. A battery does this by using a chemical
reaction and has the advantage of being simple, small,
and portable. If you move a magnet near a wire then
electricity will flow in the wire. This is done in a generator.
The electric power companies have enormous
generators driven by steam or water pressure to produce
electricity for your home.

The voltage, expressed in volts (V, and named after
Alessandro Volta who invented the battery in 1800), is a
measure of how strong the electric charge from your
battery or generator is, similar to the water pressure.
Your Electronic Playground uses a 9V battery. Notice the
“+” and “–” signs on the battery. These indicate which
direction the battery will “pump” the electricity, similarly to
how a water pump can only pump water in one direction.
The 0V or “–” side of the battery is often referred to as
“ground”. Notice that just to the right of the battery
pictured below is a symbol, the same symbol you see
next to the battery holder. Engineers are not very good
at drawing pictures of their parts, so when engineers
draw pictures of their circuits they use symbols like this to
represent them. It also takes less time to draw and takes
up less space on the page. Note that wires are
represented simply by lines on the page.

The Switch:

Since you don’t want to waste water when
you are not using it, you have a faucet or valve to turn the
water on and off. Similarly, you use a switch to turn the
electricity on and off in your circuit. A switch connects
(the “closed” or “on” position) or disconnects (the “open”
or “off” position) the wires in your circuit. As with the
battery, the switch is represented by a symbol, shown
below on the right.

Pipe

Wire

Water
Pump

Battery

Symbol for

Battery

(+)

9V

(–)

Val ve

Switch

Symbol for Switch

The Resistor: Why is the water pipe that goes to your
kitchen faucet smaller than the one that comes to your
house from the water company? And why is it much
smaller than the main water line that supplies water to
your entire town? Because you don’t need so much
water. The pipe size limits the water flow to what you
actually need. Electricity works in a similar manner,
except that wires have so little resistance that they would
have to be very, very thin to limit the flow of electricity.
They would be hard to handle and break easily. But the
water flow through a large pipe could also be limited by
filling a section of the pipe with rocks (a thin screen would
keep the rocks from falling over), which would slow the

flow of water but not stop it. Resistors are like rocks for
electricity, they control how much electric current flows.
The resistance, expressed in ohms (Ω, named after
George Ohm), kilohms (KΩ, 1000 ohms), or megohms
(MΩ, 1,000,000 ohms) is a measure of how much a
resistor resists the flow of electricity. To increase the
water flow through a pipe you can increase the water
pressure or use less rocks. To increase the electric
current in a circuit you can increase the voltage or use a
lower value resistor (this will be demonstrated in a
moment). The symbol for the resistor is shown on the
right.

Rocks in Pipe Resistor Resistor Symbol

-7-

EXPERIMENT #1: The Light Bulb

First, you need a 9V battery (alkaline is best). Fold out
the the battery holder cutouts and snap the battery into
its clip. Always remove the battery from its clip if you
won’t be using your Playground for a while.

Your Electronic Playground consists of electronic parts
connected to springs and mounted on a cardboard panel.
You will use wires to connect these springs together to
form a circuit. You are provided with several different
lengths of wires, and it is usually best to use the shortest
length of wire that comfortably reaches between two
springs so that your wiring appears less confusing and
easier to check. Notice that each spring has a number
next to it. For each circuit we will tell you the spring
numbers to connect in order to build the circuit. And as
you build each circuit you will slowly learn more and more
about electronics.

Enough talk, let’s start building your first circuit. To
connect a wire to a spring, bend the spring back to one
side with one finger and slip the metal end of the wire into
the spring; let go of the spring and it should clamp the
wire firmly in place. Tug lightly on the wire to make sure
you have a secure connection. And be sure the spring
touches the metal

portion of the wire, the colored plastic
insulation doesn’t count. To remove a wire, bend the
spring and pull the wire away. When you have two or
more wires connecting to the same spring, make sure
that one wire does not come loose while you connect the
others. This will be easier if you connect the wires on
different sides of the spring.

1

2 3

-8-

Now connect the wires for this circuit
according to the list below, which we’ll call
the Wiring Checklist. When you’re
finished your wiring should look like the
diagram shown here:

Wiring Checklist:

o 27-to-56
o 55-to-45
o 44-to-3
o 4-to-26

Be sure all your wires are securely in
place and not loose. Also make sure the
metal

in the wires is only touching the
spring and wires that it is connected to,
and not to any nearby springs or other
wires.

-9-

Press the switch (next to springs 55 and 56) and the LED
(light emitting diode) lights up, and turns off when you
release the switch. The LED converts electrical energy
into light, like the light bulbs in your home. You can also
think of an LED as being like a simple water meter, since
as the electric current increases in a wire the LED
becomes brighter. It is shown here, with its symbol.

Take a look at the water diagram that follows. It shows
the flow of water from the pump through the faucet, the
small pipe, the water meter, the large pipes, and back to
the pump. Now compare it to the electrical diagram next
to it, called a schematic. Schematics are the “maps” for
electronic circuits and are used by all electronic
designers and technicians on everything from your
Electronic Playground to the most advanced
supercomputers. They show the flow of electricity from
the battery through the switch, the resistor, the LED, the
wires, and back to the battery. They also use the symbols
for the battery, switch, resistor, and LED that we talked
about. Notice how small and simple the schematic looks
compared to the water diagram; that is why we use it.

Now you will see how changing the resistance in the
circuit increases the current through it. Press the switch
again and observe the brightness of the LED. Now
remove the wires from the 10KΩ resistor (springs 44 and

45) and connect them to the 1KΩ resistor (springs 40 and

41). Press the switch. The LED is brighter now, do you
understand why? We are using a lower resistance (less
rocks), so there is more electrical current flowing (more
water flows), so the LED is brighter. Now replace the
1KΩ resistor with the 100KΩ resistor (springs 51 and 52)
and press the switch again. The LED will be on but will
be very dim (this will be easier to see if you wrap your
hand near the LED to keep the room lights from shining
on it).

Well done! You’ve just built YOUR first electronic circuit!

Water Meter LED Symbol for LED

Water Diagram

On/Off

Valve

Water
Meter

Rocks

Pump

Schematic

Ohm’s Law: You just observed that when you have less
resistance in the circuit, more current flows (making the
LED brighter). The relationship between voltage, current,
and resistance is known as Ohm’s Law (after George
Ohm who discovered it in 1828):

Current =

Resistance:

Just what is Resistance? Take your hands
and rub them together very fast.Your hands should feel
warm. The friction between your hands converts your
effort into heat. Resistance is the electrical friction
between an electric current and the material it is flowing
through; it is the loss of energy from electrons as they
move between atoms of the material. Resistors are
made using carbon and can be constructed with different
resistive values, such as the seven parts included in your
Electronic Playground. If a large amount of current is
passed through a resistor then it will become warm due
to the electrical friction. Light bulbs use a small piece of
a highly resistive material called tungsten. Enough
current is passed through this tungsten to heat it until it
glows white hot, producing light. Metal wires have some
electrical resistance, but it is very low (less than 1Ω per
foot) and can be ignored in almost all circuits. Materials
such as metals which have low resistance are called
conductors. Materials such as paper, plastic, and air
have extremely high values of resistance and are called
insulators.

Resistor Color Code:

You may have seen the colored
bands on the resistors and may be wondering what they
mean. They are the method for marking the value of
resistance on the part. The first ring represents the first
digit of the resistor’s value. The second ring represents
the second digit of the resistor’s value. The third ring tells
you the power of ten to multiply by

,

(or the number of
zeros to add). The final and fourth ring represents the
construction tolerance. Most resistors have a gold band
for a 5% tolerance. This means the value of the resistor
is guaranteed to be within 5% of the value marked. The
colors below are used to represent the numbers 0
through 9.

Use the color code to check the values of the seven
resistors included in your Electronic Playground. (The
values are marked next to them on the box). They are all
5% tolerance.

The Variable Resistor:

We talked about how a switch is
used to turn the electricity on and off just like a valve is
used to turn the water on and off. But there are many
times when you want some water but don’t need all that
the pipe can deliver, so you control the water by adjusting
an opening in the pipe with a faucet. Unfortunately, you
can’t adjust the thickness of an already thin wire. But you
could also control the water flow by forcing the water
through an adjustable length of rocks, as in the rock arm
shown below.

In electronics we use a variable resistor. This is a normal
resistor (50KΩ in your Playground) with an additional arm
contact that can move along the resistive material and
tap off the desired resistance.

There is a scale printed next to the dial on the variable
resistor which shows the percentage of the total
resistance that is between springs 49 and 50. The
remaining resistance will be between springs 48 and 49.
The resistance between springs 48 and 50 will always be
50KΩ, the total resistance.

Now let’s demonstrate how this works.

MORE ABOUT RESISTORS

-10-

Example of Color Code

OrangeRed

Violet Gold

27 X 103= 27,000 Ω,

with 5% Tolerance

COLOR VA L UE

Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Gray 8
White 9

Rock Arm

Variable Resistor

Insulating Base Material

Wiper Contact

Thin Layer of

Resistive

Material

Stationary

Contact

Movable

Arm

Leads

Variable

Resistor

Symbol for Variable

Resistor

Voltage

Resistance

-11-

Connect the wires according to the Wiring Checklist.
Press the switch and the LED lights up. Now hold the
switch closed with one hand and turn the dial on the
variable resistor with the other. When the dial setting is
high, the resistance in the circuit is low and the LED is
bright because a large current flows. As you turn the dial
lower the resistance increases and the LED will become
dim, just as forcing the water through a section of rocks
would slow the water flow and lower the reading on your
water meter.

You may be wondering what the 1KΩ resistor is doing in
the circuit. If you set the dial on the variable resistor for
minimum resistance (0Ω) then Ohm’s Law tells us the
current will be very large - and it might damage the LED
(think of this as a very powerful water pump overloading
a water meter). So the 1KΩ was put in to limit the current
while having little effect on the brightness of the LED.

Now remove the wire from spring 48 and connect it to
spring 50 (use a longer wire if necessary). Do you know
what will happen now? Close the switch and you will see
that as you turn the dial from 0 to 100 the LED goes from
very bright to very dim, because you are increasing the
resistance between springs 49 and 50.

Now remove the wire from spring 49 and connect it to
spring 48. What do you think will happen? Close the
switch and turn the dial. The LED is dim and turning the
resistor dial won’t make it any brighter. As discussed
above, the resistance between 48 and 50 is always 50KΩ
and the part acts just like one of the other resistors in
your Electronic Playground.

Variable resistors like this one are used in the light
dimmers you may have in your house, and are also used
to control the volume in your radio, your TV, and many
electronic devices.

EXPERIMENT #2: The Brightness Control

Wiring Checklist:

o 27-to-56
o 55-to-40
o 41-to-48
o 49-to-3
o 4-to-26

Water Diagram

On/Off

Valve

Water
Meter

Rocks

Pump

Schematic

Rock Arm

-12-

Connect the wires according to the Wiring Checklist and
press the switch. The LED is on but is very dim (this will
be easier to see if you wrap your hand near the LED to
keep the room lights from shining on it). Take a look at
the schematic. There is a low 3.3KΩ resistor and a high
100KΩ resistor in series (one after another). Since the
LED is dimly lit, we know that the larger 100KΩ must be
controlling the current. You can think of this as where two
sections of the pipe are filled with rock, if one section is
much longer than the other then it controls the water flow.
If you had several rock sections of different lengths then
it is easy to see that these would add together as if they
were one longer section. The total length is what matters,
not how many sections the rock is split into. The same is
true in electronics - resistors in series add together to
increase the total resistance for the circuit. (In our circuit
the 3.3KΩ and 100KΩ resistors add up to 103.3KΩ).

To demonstrate this, disconnect the wires from the
100KΩ resistor and connect them instead to the 10KΩ,
press the switch; the LED should be easy to see now
(total resistance is now only 13.3KΩ). Next, disconnect
the 10KΩ resistor and connect the 1KΩ in its place. The
LED is now bright, but not as bright as when you used the
1KΩ in Experiment #1. Why? Because now the 3.3KΩ
is the larger resistor (total resistance is 4.3KΩ).

Also, in Experiment #2 you saw how the 1KΩ resistor
would dominate the circuit when the variable resistor was
set for 0Ω and how the variable resistor would dominate
when set for 50KΩ.

EXPERIMENT #3: Resistors in Series

Wiring Checklist:

o 27-to-56
o 55-to-42
o 43-to-51
o 52-to-3
o 4-to-26

Water Diagram

On/Off

Valve

Water

Meter

Rocks

Pump

Schematic

-13-

Connect the wires according to the Wiring Checklist.
Take a look at the schematic. There is a low 3.3KΩ
resistor and a high 100KΩ resistor in parallel (connected
between the same points in the circuit). How bright do
you think the LED will be? Press the switch and see if
you are right. The LED is bright, so most of the current
must be flowing through the smaller 3.3KΩ resistor. This
makes perfect sense when we look at the water diagram,
with most of the water flowing through the pipe with less
rocks. In general, the more water pipes (or resistors)

there are in parallel, the lower the total resistance is

and the more water (or current) will flow. The relationship
is more complicated than for resistors in series and is
given here for advanced students:

R

Parallel

=

For two 10KΩ resistors in parallel, the result would be
5KΩ. The 3.3KΩ and 100KΩ in parallel in our circuit now
give the same LED brightness as a single 3.2KΩ resistor.

To demonstrate this, disconnect the wires from the
100KΩ resistor and connect them to the 10KΩ; press the
switch and the LED should be just as bright. The total
resistance is now only 2.5KΩ, but your eyes probably
won’t notice much difference in LED brightness. Now
disconnect the wires from the 10KΩ and connect them to
the 1KΩ; press the switch. The total resistance is now
only 770Ω, so the LED should now be much brighter.

EXPERIMENT #4: Parallel Pipes

R1x R

2

R1+ R

2

Wiring Checklist:

o 27-to-56
o 55-to-52-to-43 (this will take 2 wires)
o 51-to-42-to-3 (2 wires)
o 4-to-26

Water Diagram

On/Off

Valve

Water

Meter

Rocks

Pump

Schematic

Rocks

Since we have two resistors in parallel and a second LED
that is not being used, let’s modify the circuit to match the
schematic below. It’s basically the same circuit but
instead of just parallel resistors there are parallel resistor­LED circuits. Disconnect the wire between 51 (the
100KΩ resistor) and 42 (the 3.3KΩ resistor) and connect
it between 51 and 1 (LED1) instead (you may need a
longer wire). Add a wire from 2 (LED1) to 4 (LED2).

Replace the 100KΩ resistor with several values as before
(such as 1KΩ, 10KΩ, and others if you wish), pressing
the switch and observing the LEDs each time. The
brightness of LED2 will not change, but the brightness of
LED1 will depend on the resistor value you placed in
series with it.

EXPERIMENT #4B: Comparison of Parallel Currents

-14-

There is an even easier way to explain this:

Wiring Checklist:

o 27-to-56
o 55-to-52-to-43 (2 wires)
o 51-to-1
o 42-to-3
o 2-to-4-to-26 (2 wires)

Water Diagram

On/Off

Valve

Water
Meter

Rocks

Pump

Schematic

Rocks

Water
Meter

-15-

Let’s combine everything we’ve done so far. Connect the
wires according to the Wiring Checklist. Before pressing
the switch, take a look at the schematic and think about
what will happen as you turn the dial on the variable
resistor (we’ll abbreviate this to VR). Now press the
switch with one hand and turn the dial with the other to
see if you were right. As you turn the VR dial from right
to left LED1 will go from bright to very dim and LED2 will
go from visible to off.

What’s happening is this: With the dial turned all the way
to the right the VR is 0Ω (much smaller than the 10KΩ)
so nearly all of the current passing through the 3.3KΩ will
take the VR-LED1 path and very little will take the 10KΩ-

LED2 path. When the VR dial is turned to 80% the VR is
10KΩ (same as the other path) and the current flowing
through the 3.3KΩ will divide equally between the two
LED paths (making them equally bright). As the VR dial
is turned to the left the VR becomes a 50KΩ (much larger
than the 10KΩ) and LED1 will become dim while LED2
gets brighter.

Now is a good time to take notes on how resistors work
in series and in parallel. All electronic circuits are much
larger combinations of series and parallel circuits such as
these. It’s important to understand these ideas because
soon we’ll apply them to capacitors and inductors!

EXPERIMENT #5: Combined Circuit

Wiring Checklist:

o 27-to-56
o 55-to-43
o 44-to-42-to-48
o 49-to-1
o 45-to-3
o 2-to-4-to-26

Water Diagram

On/Off

Valve

Water

Meter

Rocks

Pump

Schematic

Rocks

Water
Meter

You’ve seen how electricity flows through copper wires
easily and how carbon resists the flow. How well does
water pass electricity? Let’s find out.

Connect the wires according to the Wiring Checklist and
take a look at the schematic. There isn’t a switch this
time, so just disconnect one of the wires if you want to
turn the circuit off. Notice that the Wiring Checklist leaves
2 wires unconnected. The LED will be off initially (if you
touch the two loose wires together then it will be on).
Now take a small cup (make sure it isn’t made of metal),
fill it half way with water, and place the two unconnected
wires into the water without touching each other. The
LED should now be dimly lit, but the brightness could
vary depending on your local water quality. You are now
seeing a demonstration of how water conducts (passes)
electricity. (A small cup of water like this may be around

100KΩ, but depends on the local water quality). Try
adding more water to the cup and see if the LED
brightness changes (it should get brighter because we
are “making the water pipe larger”). Since the LED only
lights when it is in water now, you could use this circuit as
a water detector!

Now adjust the amount of water so that the LED is dimly
lit. Now, watching the LED brightness, add some table
salt to the water and stir to dissolve the salt. The LED
should become brighter because water has a lower
electrical resistance when salt is dissolved in it. Looking
at the water pipe diagram, you can think of this as a
strong cleaner dissolving paintballs that are mixed in with
the rocks. You could even use this circuit to detect salt
water like in the ocean!

EXPERIMENT #6: Water Detector

Wiring Checklist:

o 27-to-41
o 40-to-39
o 44-to-42-to-38-to-3
o 4-to-unconnected

(use a long wire)

o 26-to-45-to-43-to-

unconnected
(the unconnected
wire should be long)

Water Diagram

On/Off

Valve

Rocks

and

Paintballs

Rocks

Pump

Schematic

Rocks

Rocks

Water
Meter

-16-

Long

Wire to

Wate r

Long

Wire to

Wate r

-17-

Capacitors: Capacitors are electrical components that
can store electrical pressure (voltage) for periods of time.
When a capacitor has a difference in voltage (electrical
pressure) across it, it is said to be charged. A capacitor
is charged by having a one-way current flow through it for
a short period of time. It can be discharged by letting a
current flow in the opposite direction out of the capacitor.
In the water pipe analogy, you may think of the capacitor
as a water pipe that has a strong rubber diaphragm
sealing off each side of the pipe as shown below:

If the pipe had a plunger on one end (or a pump
elsewhere in the piping circuit), as shown above, and the
plunger was pushed toward the diaphragm, the water in
the pipe would force the rubber to stretch out until the
force of the rubber pushing back on the water was equal
to the force of the plunger. You could say the pipe is
charged and ready to push the plunger back. In fact if the
plunger is released it will move back to its original
position. The pipe will then be discharged or with no
pressure on the diaphragm.

Capacitors act the same as the pipe just described.
When a voltage (electrical pressure) is placed on one
side with respect to the other, electrical charge “piles up”
on one side of the capacitor (on the capacitor “plates”)
until the voltage pushing back equals the voltage applied.
The capacitor is then charged to that voltage. If the
charging voltage was then decreased the capacitor
would discharge. If both sides of the capacitor were
connected together with a wire then the capacitor would
rapidly discharge and the voltage across it would become
zero (no charge).

What would happen if the plunger in the drawing above
was wiggled in and out many times each second? The
water in the pipe would be pushed by the diaphragm and
then sucked back by the diaphragm. Since the
movement of the water (current) is back and forth
(alternating) it is called an alternating current or AC.
The capacitor will therefore pass an alternating current
with little resistance. When the push on the plunger was
only toward the diaphragm, the water on the other side of
the diaphragm moved just enough to charge the pipe (a
transient or temporary current). Just as the pipe blocked
a direct push, a capacitor blocks a direct current (DC).

Current from a battery is an example of direct current. An
example of alternating current is the 60 cycle (60 wiggles
per second) current from the electrical outlets in the walls
of your house.

Construction of Capacitors:

If the rubber diaphragm is
made very soft it will stretch out and hold a lot of water
but will break easily (large capacitance but low working
voltage). If the rubber is made very stiff it will not stretch
far but will be able to withstand higher pressure (low
capacitance but high working voltage). By making the
pipe larger and keeping the rubber stiff we can achieve a
device that holds a lot of water and withstands high
pressure (high capacitance, high working voltage, large
size). So the pipe size is determined by its capacity to
hold water and the amount of pressure it can handle.
These three types of water pipes are shown below:

INTRODUCTION TO CAPACITORS

Pipe Filled with Water

Rubber Diaphragm

Sealing Center of Pipe

Plunger

A Rubber Diaphragm in a Pipe is Like a Capacitor

Soft Rubber

Types of Water Pipes

Stiff Rubber

Stiff Rubber

Large Capacity

Low Pressure

Low Capacity

but can withstand

High Pressure

High Capacity and can withstand High Pressure

Similarly, capacitors are described by their capacity for
holding electric charge, called their Capacitance, and
their ability to withstand electric pressure (voltage)
without damage. Although there are many different types
of capacitors made using many different materials, their
basic construction is the same. The wires (leads)
connect to two or more metal plates that are separated
by high resistance materials called dielectrics.

The dielectric is the material that holds the electric
charge (pressure), just like the rubber diaphragm holds
the water pressure. Some dielectrics may be thought of
as stiff rubber, and some as soft rubber. The capacitance
and working voltage of the capacitor is controlled by
varying the number and size of metal-dielectric layers,
the thickness of the dielectric layers, and the type of
dielectric material used.

Capacitance is expressed in farads (F, named after
Michael Faraday whose work in electromagnetic
induction led to the development of today’s electric
motors and generators), or more commonly in
microfarads (μF, millionths of a farad) or picofarads (pF,
millionths of a microfarad). Almost all capacitors used in
electronics vary from 1pF to 1000μF.

Your Electronic Playground includes two electrolytic
(10μF and 100μF) and two disc (.0047μF and .047μF)
capacitors. (Mylar capacitors may have been substituted
for the disc ones, their construction and performance is
similar). Electrolytic capacitors (usually referred to as
lytics) are high capacitance and are used mostly in power
supply or low frequency circuits. Their capacitance and
voltage are usually clearly marked on them. Note that
these parts have “+” and “–” polarity (orientation)
markings, the lead marked “+” should always be
connected to a higher voltage than the “–” lead (all of your
Wiring Checklists account for this). Disc capacitors are
low capacitance and are used mostly in radio or high
frequency applications. They don’t have voltage or
polarity markings (they can be hooked up either way).
Capacitors have symbols as follows:

-18-

Construction of a Capacitor

Lead 1

Dielectric

Metal Plate

Lead 2

Soft Diaphragm Symbol for

Electrolytic

Capacitor

(–) (+)

Electrolytic Capacitor

Disc Capacitor

Stiff Diaphragm Symbol for

Disc

Capacitor

-19-

Connect the wires according to the Wiring Checklist and
press the switch several times. You can see it takes time
to charge and discharge the large capacitor because the
LED lights up and goes dim slowly. Replace the 3.3KΩ
resistor with the 1KΩ resistor; now the charge time is
faster but the discharge time is the same. Do you know
why? When the switch is closed the battery charges the
capacitor through the 1KΩ resistor and when the switch
is opened the capacitor discharges through the 10KΩ,
which has remained the same. Now replace the 100μF
capacitor with the 10μF. Both the charge and discharge

times are now faster since there is less capacitance to
charge up. If you like you may experiment with different
resistors in place of the 1KΩ and 10KΩ. If you observe
the LED carefully, you might start to suspect the
relationship between the component values and the
charging and discharging times - the charge/discharge

times are proportional to both the capacitance and
the resistance in the charge/discharge path!

A simple circuit like this is used to slowly light or darken
a room, such as a movie theater.

EXPERIMENT #7: Slow Light Bulb

Wiring Checklist:

o 27-to-56
o 55-to-43
o 36-to-44-to-42
o 45-to-3
o 37-to-26-to-4

Water Diagram

On/Off

Valve

Rubber

Diaphragm

Rocks

Pump

Schematic

Rocks

Water

Meter

-20-

Take a look at the schematic, it is almost the same circuit
as the last experiment except that now there are two
capacitors in series. What do you think will happen?
Connect the wires according to the Wiring Checklist and
press the switch several times to see if you are right.

Looking at the water diagram and the name of this
experiment should have made it clear - the smaller 10μF
will dominate (control) the response since it will take less
time to charge up. As with resistors, you could change
the order of the two capacitors and would still get the
same results (try this if you like). Notice that while

resistors in series add together to make a larger circuit
resistance, capacitors in series combine to make a
smaller circuit capacitance. Actually, capacitors in series
combine the same way resistors in parallel combine
(using the same mathematical relationship given in
Experiment 4). For this experiment, 10μF and 100μF in
series perform the same as a single 9.1μF.

In terms of our water pipe analogy, you could think of
capacitors in series as adding together the stiffness of
their rubber diaphragms.

EXPERIMENT #8: Small Dominates Large - Capacitors in Series

Wiring Checklist:

o 27-to-56
o 55-to-43
o 34-to-44-to-42
o 45-to-3
o 37-to-26-to-4
o 35-to-36

Water Diagram

On/Off

Valve

Rubber

Diaphragms

Rocks

Pump

Schematic

Rocks

Water

Meter

-21-

Now you have capacitors in parallel, and you can
probably predict what will happen. If not, just think about
the last experiment and about how resistors in parallel
combine, or think in terms of the water diagram again.
Connect the wires according to the Wiring Checklist and
press the switch several times to see.

Capacitors in parallel add together just like resistors in
series, so here 10μF + 100μF = 110μF total circuit
capacitance. In the water diagram, we are stretching

both rubber diaphragms at the same time so it will take
longer than to stretch either one by itself. If you like you
may experiment with different resistor values as you did
in experiment #7. Although you do have two disc
capacitors and a variable capacitor (which will be
discussed later) there is no point in experimenting with
them now, their capacitance values are so small that they
would act as an open switch in any of the circuits
discussed so far.

EXPERIMENT #9: Large Dominates Small - Capacitors in Parallel

Wiring Checklist:

o 27-to-56
o 55-to-43
o 36-to-34-to-44-to-42
o 45-to-3
o 37-to-35-to-26-to-4

Water Diagram

On/Off

Valve

Rubber

Diaphragms

Rocks

Pump

Schematic

Rocks

Water

Meter

-22-

Connect the wires according to the Wiring Checklist,
noting that there is no switch and a long wire with one
end connected to the 100μF capacitor and the other end
unconnected. At this time no current will flow because
nothing is connected to the battery. Now hold the loose
wire and touch it to battery spring 27 and then remove it,
the battery will instantly charge the capacitor since there
is no resistance (actually there is some internal
resistance in the battery and some in the wires but these
are very small). The capacitor is now charged and is
storing the electricity it received from the battery. It will
remain charged as long as the loose wire is kept away
from any metal. Now touch the loose wire to spring 43 on
the 3.3KΩ resistor and watch the LED. It will initially be
very bright but diminishes quickly as the capacitor
discharges. Repeat charging and discharging the
capacitor several times. You can also discharge the
100μF in small bursts by only briefly touching the 3.3KΩ.
If you like you can experiment with using different values

in place of the 3.3KΩ; lower values will make the LED
brighter but it will dim faster while with higher resistor
values the LED won’t be as bright but it will stay on
longer. You can also put a resistor in series with the
battery when you charge the capacitor, then it will take
time to fully charge the capacitor. What do you think
would happen if you used a smaller capacitor value?

When the capacitor is charged up it is storing electricity
which could be used elsewhere at a later time - it is like a
battery! However, an electrolytic capacitor is not a very
efficient battery. Storing electric charge between the
plates of a capacitor uses much more space than storing
the same amount of charge chemically within a battery ­compare how long the 100μF lit the LED above with how
your 9V battery runs all of your experiments!

Now is a good time to take notes for yourself on how
capacitors work, since next we introduce the diode.

EXPERIMENT #10: Make Your Own Battery

Wiring Checklist:

o 37-to-26-to-4
o 42-to-3
o 36-to-unconnected

(use a long wire)

Water Diagram

At least one valve

is always closed.

Rubber

Diaphragm

Rocks

Pump

Schematic

Water

Meter

Loose

Wire