Cessna 182
A2ASIMULATIONS
C182
ACCU-SIM C182 SKYLANE
ACCU-SIM C182
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A2ASIMULATIONS
C182
ACCU-SIM
C182 SKYLANE
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CONTENTS
6 THE CESSNA 182
16 DESIGNER’S NOTES
18 FEATURES
20 QUICK START GUIDE
24 ACCU-SIM AND THE COMBUSTION ENGINE
30 SPECIFICATIONS
34 CHECKLISTS
40 PROCEDURES EXPLAINED
46 PERFORMANCE
62 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
68 EMERGENCIES EXPLAINED
72 AIRPLANE & SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION
86 AIRPLANE HANDLING, SERVICE & MAINTENANCE
98 ACCU-SIM AND THE C182 SKYLANE
102 CREDITS
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THE CESSNA 182
The Jack of All Trades and Master of All
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HE MASTER OF ALL TRADES? WELL, PERHAPS THAT IS A BIT
elaborate; however, the Cessna 182 is the proven master of a great
T
many aeronautical “trades”, indeed. So, what are the “trades” that
we want a General Aviation (GA) aeroplane to be the master of? Well, we
want it to be fast, carry lots of fuel, people and baggage, climb well, stall
gently, be easy to land and fly, be economical to operate and maintain,
and generally be a safe and pleasant ride for us and our passengers -that’s a lot to ask of one aeroplane. Aer all, the physical world is based
upon compromise and give and take; what is gained here is lost there, etc.
Because of this necessary compromise, when it comes to mastering all
of these “trades”, virtually every aeroplane fails to make the grade. Some
exhibit very high performance but are a handful to fly for the average
pilot and others are as gentle as a puppy, but do not perform so well.
That ubiquitous physical compromise is present in most instances.
NOW CONSIDER THE CESSNA 182:
It has a light and simple fixed gear but it can cruise as
fast, or nearly so, as many retractable gear aircra. It
can haul over 1,200 pounds of passengers, fuel and/or
cargo. It will climb at nearly 1,000 fpm fully loaded and
has an excellent ceiling and higher altitude performance even without turbocharging due to its generous
supply of power. Due to very large and eective flaps,
its slow speed and departed flight regimes are excellent, predictable and better in most circumstances
than other aircra in its class. Accordingly, a pilot may
get it in and out of very small fields with confidence.
Its engine is reliable, easily maintained and not unduly
thirsty for fuel or oil. While it has a constant speed
propeller, it is a simple and basic aeroplane to operate
that may be quickly mastered by even relatively lowtime pilots. It possesses a large and comfortable cabin
for four plus a capacious baggage compartment. While
it is maneouverable and quick on the controls, it is also
stable around all axes and possesses no dangerous or
surprising traits. It is an excellent IFR aeroplane. The
C-182 and feels substantial and robust; it is well-made
and can operate in and out of fairly rough airstrips.
Its high wing allows unlimited downward visibility.
Its rear cabin window gives a pilot increased visibility
and grants a more spacious and open feeling to rear
passengers.
The C-182T will cruise at 140KTAS at 10,000 while
burning only 12 gallons an hour or so and this while
carrying full fuel (88 U. S. gallons), four adults and
some baggage and being a gentle and predictable
aeroplane for the weekend pilot to confidently fly with
his family. Since 2005 the Garmin G1000 Glass Cockpit
has been available in the C-182. This makes instrument
and low visibility flying easier and safer.
While practical and simple to operate, many consider
the high-performance capability of Cessna 182 to be
the ultimate aeroplane for the casual, sportsman flyer.
The Master of all trades? Well, almost all. It cannot
break the sound barrier or reach 40,000. However, it is
the master of so many trades that really matter, that no
one could reasonably ask for more.
HOW?
By now you ought to have the feeling that there is very
little that the C-182 cannot do - without ease, grace
and élan. So, how did Cessna achieve this aeronautical
superlative?
As any dog breeder will tell you, ancestry makes
a great deal of dierence. The C- 182’s immediate
ancestor is the Cessna 180, the 182 being essentially
the tricycle gear version of the 180. In creating the
C-180, the first thing Cessna did was to borrow what
was an already proven wing design from the all metal
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THE CESSNA 182
C-170/172. Below its high wing, however, the C-180/182
is an entirely new aeroplane.
The C-182’s cowling is larger and fuselage is longer
than the C-172’s, and the cabin does not taper rearwards adding a good deal of useful space. The C-182’s
undercarriage is sturdier and more robust to handle its
heavier weight. The C-182’s six cylinder 230 h. p. engine
is almost 60% more powerful than that of the C-172’s
but its gross weight is only 30% greater. This gives the
C- 182 a very respectable power- loading of 13.52 lb./
hp. While the C-172 and the C-182 share the same wing,
that wing is more than large enough to give the C-182
a relatively light wing- loading of 17.8 lb./sq.. It is
this combination of high power and low weight which
produces the excellent performance that the C-182
demonstrates.
Greater power and a larger propeller produce more
P-eect and torque which require appropriately sized
tail surfaces to counter them. Accordingly, the C-182’s
tail surfaces (fin/rudder and stabilizer/elevators) were
made larger to accommodate the additional power up
front. While this results in a somewhat heavy feeling
elevator whilst on the ground and at slow speeds, in
the air the elevator is not disproportionately heavy as
compared to other aircra in its class.
Taking all of these design elements together,
pound for pound the C-182 emerges as one of the
most capable GA aircra of all time, a true Master of
All Trades. Superlative performance has been justly
rewarded, with over 23.000 having been built, the
C-182 is the second most popular and numerously
produced high performance GA aeroplane of all time,
just aer the C-172.
WHY?
So, why did Cessna go to so much trouble to create an
aeroplane with all of the ability that the C-182 possesses? As usual, there is more than one answer. One
reason was due to market conditions. Aer the end of
World War II, there was a fast growing demand for the
so-called bush plane. The simplest definition of a bush
plane is one which will be primarily operated in and
out of rough, short and remote fields and waterways;
those which could not in any real way be considered to
be airports or airfields.
It has been long established that high -wing, tailwheel aeroplanes are best for bush flying. High wings
sit well above the sometimes tall brush and far from
stones and other debris which might be kicked up.
The sturdy main gear of a tailwheel aeroplane is best
suited for rough landings in fields which might actually
damage a more delicate nosewheel strut. Also, a
tailwheel aeroplane’s propeller is higher o the ground
when taking o, landing and taxiing than the propeller
of a nosewheel aeroplane, putting it farther away from
stones, etc.
Cessna’s high wing aeroplanes, with a suicient amount
of power and a tailwheel are ready-made for bush flying.
The 170 had almost all of the features required for a bush
aeroplane. What was wanted was a larger, more robust
airframe and an increase in power. Thus came the C-180,
which, with a nose wheel is the C-182.
BUSH LEAGUE
Contrary to popular belief, bush flying did not begin
aer W.W. II.; it began in Canada in 1919. Ellwood Wilson
was a Canadian forester who was employed by the
Laurentide Company located in Quebec. Laurentide
trained foresters whom they hired out to large lumber
companies. Of forester Wilson’s many duties, surely
very high in importance was the hopefully early detection and reportage of forest fires. One day Mr. Wilson
had a brilliant idea: The forests were too vast for even
hundreds of foresters like himself to properly patrol and
map; however, from an aeroplane the entire forest could
be well-patrolled and mapped and any sign of smoke
that might indicate a burgeoning fire could be instantly
detected and reported.
He obtained two surplus Curtiss HS-2L flying boats
from the Canadian government. Between 4 and 8 June,
1919, the first aerial fire-patrol and photography missions were piloted by RCAS Captain Stuart Graham and
engineer Walter Kahre. One of their cross-country flights
of 645 miles to Lac-àla- Tortue, was at that time, the
longest cross-country flight in Canada.
This and subsequent forest patrol flights of the Curtiss
JS-2Ls are considered to be the very first bush aircra
operations. Laurentide Company initially financed these
flights which received tremendous publicity in Canada.
Soon thereaer a new subsidiary was formed, Laurentide
Air Services, Ltd., the first exclusively bush operator in
Eastern Canada.
Curtiss HS-2L
in military use
during W. W. I.
A Curtiss HS-2L
of Laurentide
Air Services
in the early
1920s.
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An Airco DH-4
which was
used in Air
Mail service
in the 1920’s.
Piper J-3
“Grasshopper”.
Very popular
for bush ying
is the Piper
Super Cub
with oversized
tundra tires for
rough elds.
Curtiss JN-4 “Jenny”
Meanwhile, in Western Canada, in Edmonton, Wilfred
May and his brother Court began the first commercial
bush flying business in that area, called May Airplanes,
Ltd. Flying a surplus Curtiss JN- 4 “Jenny” they,
along with pilot George Gorman and mechanic Peter
Derbyshire flew newspapers and small packages to
outlying towns and villages.
Soon, these nascent companies were recognized to
be successfully providing a vital service in the rugged
and oen isolated area of central Canada. In 1919, Carl
Ben Eielson, an Alaskan originally from North Dakota,
began flying passengers in a surplus “Jenny” from
Fairbanks to and from outlying villages. In 1924 the U.S.
Post Oice granted Eielson a license to deliver mail in
and around the Fairbanks area, but now in a far more
powerful DH-4.
From these humble beginnings, bush flying in
Canada, Alaska and the northern continental United
States quickly blossomed into a major industry with
thousands of aeroplanes connecting what were
formerly remote and wild places with the rest of the
world. Food, medicine, doctors and other vital commodities and people were, for the first time, now able
to be delivered to so many remote regions which had
been formerly bere of these necessities.
Aer W. W. II, aircra manufactures recognised that
bush flying companies would be operating again without the restrictions upon civilian aviation that the war,
out of necessity, had applied. It was not long before
many of the Piper Cubs and Super Cubs, Stinsons,
Aeroncas, all of the so -called “Grasshoppers” of the U.
S. and Canadian Air Services began to show their age
-- rough field and water flying taking its inevitable toll
on them. New aircra to replace these noble veterans
were wanted.
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THE CESSNA 182
THE CESSNA “AIRMASTER” - WHERE
IT ALL BEGINS — FOR A WHILE
In 1935 Cessna introduced what was to be a very useful
bush and cargo single-engine aeroplane- the C-145/165
‘Airmaster”. These were rugged, substantial aircra
made of wood and steel tubing with fabric covering.
The wing was cantilever and did not require any external struts. Like virtually all aircra of that era it had a
tail wheel. It was ideal for rough country operations.
With its capacious fuselage and an excellent useful load
of 970 lbs. and later well over 1,100 lbs, with the 165 hp
(123 kW) Warner engine installed. It was a very capable
rough country aeroplane.
While Cessna’s production of civilian Airmasters
ended at the U. S. ’s entry on to W.W. II on December
8, 1941, a few Airmasters, now called UC-77B, UC-77C,
and UC-94 entered the into the military services of the
U.S. A number of them were also used by the Air Forces
of Australia and Finland.
The powerful and rugged 4-place, high wing
Airmaster is the direct ancestor of all post- war Cessna
single –engine aircra.
Civilian 1938 Cessna
C-165 “Airmaster”
Cessna C-37 Airmaster set up for
bush operations with removed
wheel pants and large tyres.
THE END OF THE WAR AND A
NEW BEGINNING FOR CESSNA
In 1945, Cessna produced its only post-war radialengined, five place aeroplane, the C-190/195. While
Cessna had first designed and flown the 190 in 1945, it
was not until 1947 that it was introduced it to the public.
This is possibly because Cessna was hesitant to jump
back into the post-war general aviation market with
such an expensive aeroplane (which apparently did
not at all daunt Beechcra). Instead, the first Cessna
introduced aer the war was the modest, two-place, 65
hp C-120 which was available to the public in 1946.
The sole dierence between a C-190 and a C-195
is its engine: the C-190 having a 240 h. p. Continental
W670-23 radial engine, and a C-195 a 300 h. p. Jacobs
R-755 radial engine. Both engines have a diameter of
42” which makes the 190/195’s forward fuselage quite
large and most capacious. With seating for five (two
up front, three a) the 195’s useful load is 1,250 lbs.
permitting full 75 gallon tanks plus four - 200 lb. or five
- 160 lb. souls on board. Its published cruise is 170mph
(148k; 274km/h) at 70% power at 7, 500’. This was
remarkable performance for a light aeroplane in 1947
and quite similar to the modern C-182.
While the 190/195’s wing is, as with the pre-war
“Airmaster”, a cantilever design, unlike the “Airmaster”
the C-190/195 is of all- metal construction. Cessna
apparently came to the understanding (as would Piper
later in the decade) that manufacturing fabric-covered
aeroplanes is highly labor intensive and therefore
more costly to build than an all-metal aircra. The
C-190/195’s airfoil is the familiar NACA 2412 as used by
Cessnas’ 170, 150, 172 and 182 to this day.
An expensive “luxury” type, the C-190/195 was not
intended or expected to greatly fuel the post-war private
General Aviation market. These large, 5-place aircra
were intended primarily to be used for commercial charter and business transportation rather than as a light
aeroplane for personal use. Many of the 190/195s were
converted to floatplanes which made them very useful
commuter aircra in areas where there were few or no
airports. In this sense it could be said that the C-190/195
was a bush plane, although bush planes are generally
not so well-appointed nor so elegant.
As impressive as its performance may be, the massive C-190/195 was too costly, its thirsty radial engine
required a good deal of maintenance, and its general
appearance, while sleek and attractive, was a definite
throwback to aircra of the thirties. Cessna understood
that something new was wanted in the brave new era
of peace.
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SOMETHING NEW
Introduced in 1946, the basic and aordable 2-place
Cessna 120 was an instant success. It spawned the
C-140 which was then slightly stretched and in 1948
became the four-place 170. The 170 eventually
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A Cessna C-195 on
amphibious oats. A very
capable bush aeroplane.
1949 Cessna 195. Sleek,
powerful …and expensive.
morphed into the all-metal, tricycle undercarriage
Cessna 172 in 1956, which is where the modern era of
Cessna aircra begins.
The whole story of the how the C-172 came to be and
how it evolved may be found in the A2A C-172 Manual
and, accordingly, will not be repeated here. I do commend it to you, dear reader, even though I must admit
that I wrote it. Nevertheless, you still may find it worthy
of a glance or two, as therein is discussed the genesis
and early development of the post- W.W. II Cessna line
of light aircra.
All went swimmingly well for a while, but Cessna
became inundated by the pleas of those who loved
the C-170 but wanted to go faster and carry more load.
Some of those were bush pilots who operated in and
out of the most primitive places on earth and who
required aeroplanes with lots of power, load capacity,
high performance and strength. Others simply wished
to take their families on trips without having to land for
fuel so oen.
While the C-170 was an excellent, relatively inexpensive personal aeroplane for use in relatively civilized
places, it did not have suicient power, load carrying
capability and overal performance necessary for
serious bush flying (and it is all serious). As of 1952,
except for the C-190/195, Cessna did not produce an
aeroplane that could be inexpensively used as a bush
plane.
Surely tired and frustrated at hearing how rival Piper
Cubs and Super Cubs were hauling goods and people
all around the remote northern regions, in 1952 Cessna
decided to satisfy these clamouring requests and
began to design the C-180.
THE CESSNA 180 - A RUGGED,
HEAVY HAULER
The first thing that Cessna did in designing the 180
was to slightly increase the size of the fuselage to
accommodate a new, more powerful engine, the 225h.
p. Continental O-470-A, O-470-J, and later a 230h. p.
Continental O-470-K engine. Some 180s have engines
up to 300 h.p. The 180’s larger fuselage also gave
the cabin a bit more room, particularly in width, and
tail surfaces were re-designed to accommodate the
increase in power.
On 26 May, 1952, with Cessna’s chief engineering
test pilot William D. Thompson at the controls, the
first Cessna 180, N41697, made its maiden flight. It
was certified by the FAA’s predecessor, the CAA (Civil
Aeronautics Authority), on 23 December of that year;
a nice Christmas present indeed for Cessna to give
itself. During 1953, the C-180 was made available to the
public. This was the “Golden Year” of aviation, in that
it was 50 years since the Wright Brothers made what
is considered to be the first powered flight; something
Cessna did not fail to mention in its advertisements for
the 180.
C-170 tail
surfaces were
originally
round-shaped.
The more
powerful C-180
tail surfaces are
square- shaped
and larger.
This was later
adopted for
the C-170.
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THE CESSNA 182
Even though the Cessna 180 has the same wing as
the later model all-metal Cessna 170, the 180 is a very
dierent aeroplane. It is heavier, more powerful and
more capable in every way. Unlike the C-170, C-180
with its 1,100 lb. useful load can comfortably carry four
adults and full fuel. Here is a basic comparison:
Cessna 170 Cessna 180
Empty Weight 1,205 lbs. 1,700 lbs.
Useful Load 950 lbs. 1,100 lbs.
Power 145 h.p. 230 h.p.
Cruise 105 K 142 K
Stall (Full flaps at MGW) 43 K 48 K
Range (Statute miles) 590 1,024
Absolute Ceiling 15,500 . 17,700 .
Rate of Climb at MGW 590 fpm 1,100 fpm
Without question the Cessna 180 performed very
well with its six- cylinder horizontally opposed 230 h.
p. Continental engine. It was just what the bush pilots
were looking for: an economical but hardy, heavy
loader that could go long distances quickly without
having to re-fuel. This was a much better deal than
the larger C- 190/195, which was far more expensive
to purchase, maintain and operate. It was even more
capable and rugged than the excellent C-37 Airmaster.
FOLLOW THE MONEY
All of this was just fine; however, Cessna was not only
in the business of selling aeroplanes to bush pilots,
as commercially sound as that was. The really plush
market in the burgeoning and prosperous middle
1950’s was private pilots who wanted a fast aeroplane
that could carry themselves and their families for long
distances and not cost the Earth to do so. The C-170
was fine but its performance was, to be charitable, not
spectacular.
However, the C-180 could do all that the C-170 could
not. Cessna tried to sell the C-180 to private pilots but
universally met with strong resistance over one matter
in particular - the C-180 has a tail wheel. In the middle
of the 1950’s new aeroplanes had nosewheels.
More and more private pilots of that era were no
longer content nor comfortable with an aeroplane with
a tail wheel with its inherent instability on the ground,
the high possibility of a groundloop at landing and the
poor visibility over the nose when taxiing. Once a pilot
had experienced flying an aeroplane with a nosewheel,
he or she was not willing to go back to the tailwheel.
Accordingly, Cessna had no good argument regarding
this when pilots baulked at the C-180. The solution was
more than obvious and Cessna, with yawning empty
coers anxiously awaiting to be filled with the loot to
be gained by new purchases, went to work to remedy
the deficiency.
IT LOOKS SO EASY, BUT…
Sometime during 1954, Cessna’s Board of Directors
were convinced that it would be in Cessna’s best
Piper PA-22
Tri-Pacer. Notefully steerable
nosewheel
interest for the future to put nosewheels on their two
top selling aeroplanes. They likely did not consider
that this was going to be a big problem. Aer all,
they were already manufacturing two very popular
prime candidates for this modification, the C-170
and the newer C-180. It is likely that the Board had
for some time resisted this rather expensive and
extensive change until it was painfully pointed out to
them that Cessna had indeed fallen far behind their
competitors in this regard, particularly Piper with its
prescient tricycle undercarriage Tri-Pacer which was
introduced to the public in early 1951. Not having
produced any single engine aircra with a nosewheel
by 1954 was certainly a major concern for Cessna.
Ultimately convinced to go ahead, the Board directed
Cessna’s engineers to go to the drawing board and
come up with a satisfactory solution. However, putting a nosewheel on an existing tailwheel aircra is
much easier said than done.
SO, WHAT’S THE BIG DEAL?
First, the main gear must be moved back behind the
centre of gravity (C. G.) so that the aeroplane will firmly
sit forward on its new nosewheel. This may sound at
first blush to be a simple and obvious matter, but it is
more of a problem than it might appear with respect
to a high wing aeroplane such as the Cessna 180. One
reason (of many) for the complication is because the
main undercarriage is necessarily attached to the
bottom of the C-180’s fuselage and that fuselage has
already been designed to absorb and transfer the
stresses of taxiing and landing at the former, more forward attachment point of its main undercarriage legs.
Low-wing, tailwheel aeroplanes which are re-designed
for a nosewheel have many of the same problems as
those of high-wing aeroplanes, however moving the
main undercarriage attachment point farther a on the
wing is a simpler matter.
Of course, there are a few exceptions to the
bottom of fuselage location for main undercarriage
attachment on a high-wing, nosewheel aeroplane,
particularly with regard to some twin engine,
high-wing aeroplanes such as the Aero Commander,
the Mitsubishi MU-2 and the Britten-Norman BN-2
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Islander. In each of these examples, the main gear
assembly is located in the engine nacelles. Highwing singles such as the C-180 do not have such a
convenient place to attach the main gear as do those
aeroplanes. Accordingly, the internal structure of the
fuselage of the formerly “standard” undercarriage
C-180 had perforce to be altered. It required that
the new stress points, created by the relocated main
gear, adequately transfer and distribute rough-field
taxiing and landing forces into the fuselage struc
ture; forces which in the real world are not always
perfectly gentle and benign.
The exact placement rearward of the main gear must
also be resolved. This is a complicated matter of balance and compromise that involves the consideration
of a number of matters such as:
1. The location of the C. G. within a useable range
after the nosewheel is installed. This must
take into account the weight of the nosewheel
assembly, since its position is well forward with
respect to the aircraft datum or fuselage station.
While the main undercarriage sits slightly behind
the C.G. and having two wheels and legs, etc. is
heavier, it does not necessarily offset the forward
moment arm of the new nosewheel assembly.
2. The balance of the aeroplane when on the
ground. The main undercarriage legs must
be placed far enough aft to provide a stable
platform for the aeroplane to sit upon. It
must also be far enough aft to prevent the
aeroplane from tending to easily tip back
onto its tailskid under normal operating,
load and wind conditions; however…
3. The main undercarriage legs must not be so far
aft so as to prevent rotation or create too high a
load for the elevator to lift the nose on takeoff. A
certain aft placement of the main undercarriage
legs might make for a very stable aeroplane
whilst on the ground, but if it is placed too far
aft the resulting geometry may cause a situation in which the elevator may not be powerful
enough to lift the nose during the takeoff.
LEFT: Aero
Commander
note- main
undercarriage in
engine nacelle
CENTER:
Britten-Norman
BN-2 Islander.
Note- main
undercarriage
attached to
engine nacelle
RIGHT: Grumman
AA-5B “Tiger”note simple
non-steerable,
castering
nosewheel
Other considerations include:
1. The nosewheel assembly’s added mass
and drag below the data line which
will likely cause pitch – down.
2. The additional weight of the nosewheel
which reduces the aeroplane’s useful load.
3. The new tri-cycle geometry must allow for
precise and positive braking, taxiing.
4. The placement of the main undercar-
riage legs must not prevent and ought
to aid entry into the aeroplane.
5. The transfer of forces during taxi-
ing and landing must not unduly disturb the pilot and passengers.
There are probably a few more considerations as
well, but I presume that the point has been made.
Once these many thorny problems are resolved to
the best of the design engineers’ ability, the matter
of the nose wheel assembly itself and its placement
must be addressed. The area beneath the engine
and its accessories where there was little to no space
must now house the nosewheel assembly attachment. This includes a strut of suicient strength
and robustness to withstand rough field taxiing
and less than gentle landings. Not only that, but the
nosewheel’s steering mechanism and its linkages
must also be considered. In some nosewheel aircra
such as the Grumman AA-5A “Cheetah” and the
AA-5B “Tiger”, the Tecnam P Twenty-Ten and many
homebuilt aircra, this particular problem at least
has been simplified by installing a free- castering
nosewheel whereby all ground steering is achieved
by dierential braking and not by a direct link to the
nosewheel. Additionally, free-castering nosewheel
permits a very tight turning circle and many pilots
report that they like it better than a steerable
nosewheel. Cessna desired to provide a fully steering
nosewheel as did Piper’s Tri-Pacer and many other
aircra, so the complex linkages from the rudder
pedals to the nosewheel had to be designed and
space for all of this had to be found.
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THE CESSNA 182
PRESENTING: (APPROPRIATE
FANFARE) THE CESSNA 182
In November 1955 the C-172 was introduced to the public,
albeit as a 1956 model. Within a few months, in early 1956,
the C-182 took its opening bow. It was an instant suc
cess in the GA market. The following year the C-182 was
upgraded and became the “Skylane”. Bush pilots, how
ever, continued and continue to date to operate C-180s as
even the best nose wheel system is considered to be too
delicate for operations in rough country. With over 23,000
C-182/Skylanes having been produced to date the C-182/
Skylane has certainly proven to be a popular ride.
IT KEEPS GETTING BETTER, BUT
THE ’PLANE REMAINS THE SAME
The C-182/Skylane did not sit dormant for very long before
improvements and modifications were incorporated by
Cessna. Engines, landing gear material, larger windows,
and cabin appointments have changed and its useful load
has steadily increased. However, even with all of these
changes, the Cessna 182 remains the same simple, fast,
heavy hauling, comfortable, easy to fly aeroplane that it
was when it was first introduced in November, 1955.
Sure, over the years there have been a few modifications to the airframe, the vertical fin and rudder being
swept back with “D” model in 1960, and the most
dramatic and obvious change being the cut down rear
fuselage and the installation of “Omni-Vision” (a rear
cabin window) with “E” model in 1961. In 1996, with
the “S” model, the familiar Continental O-470-U engine
was replaced by the fuel injected Lycoming IO-540 of
similar power. Other than that the 182’s changes have
been modest and subtle, updated radios, fancier cabin
appointments and such.
The retractable gear R182 was introduced in 1977,
and a turbocharged T182 was introduced in 1980.
Both retractable gear and a turbocharged engine were
available in the TR182 in 1978. In 2001, a turbocharged
-
-
The very rst Cessna 182 (N4966E)
ABOVE RIGHT:
1956 C-182 panel
with a few radios,
etc. added.
BELOW RIGHT:
1956 C-182. Even
with a nosewheel
ip- overs are
possible.
and fuel injected engine was available in the T182T. The
introduction of the Garmin G1000 “Glass Cockpit” was
introduced as standard equipment in 2004. A diesel
engined 182, the T182JT-A, was tested in 2012 and set for
delivery to its first customer this year.
TH E C-18 2T
With each new model the Cessna 182 shows thoughtful improvements which enhance its usefulness and
convenience, sometimes in large gulps, sometime in
smaller ones. The “T” model 182 is no exception and
displays a number of changes from the previous “S”
model.
Cockpit” (not modelled) there are other electronic
enhancements. Recognizing that the electrical system
of the 182 had become more sophisticated as well as
more capacious. The avionics master switch now controls a split electrical bus. Also, there is an additional
main bus with a standby battery position. For safety in
the event that there should occur an electrical system
malfunction the avionics are divided onto two discrete,
separately switchable busses. Should a particular
component or group of components malfunction and it
becomes necessary to shed electrical load on the main
system, basic navigation and/or communication capability may be preserved by shutting down power to Nav
I or II and/or Com I or II while leaving the other radios
operational. Bus #1 switches the Honeywell Bendix/
King KLN 94, if so equipped, plus the #1 Nav/Com. Bus
#2 switches the Bendix/King KMD 550 multifunction
display (MFD), if so equipped, the #2 Nav/Com and the
transponder.
practice of dividing the most important instruments
between electric and hydraulic power, so that if one
system should fail, at least half of the instruments
would still operate.The Directional Gyro (or HSI if one
Aside from the optional Garmin G1000 “Glass
The “T” model continues Cessna’s safe and wise
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is installed) is powered by the electrical system while
the Attitude Indicator (Artificial Horizon) is driven by
the vacuum system. There are two constantly working
vacuum pumps in C-182T’s with Nav I and Nav II equipment and one vacuum pump in Nav III 182s.
Cosmetically the 182”T” continues the practice
of painting on the trim over the white base colour.
Previously, and prior to 2003 the trim stripes were
decals which were clear coated to preserve them from
the weather, etc. Not surprisingly, this did not work
out so well in all instances and more than a few decaltrimmed 182Ts are showing a bit of ragged wear. Since
2003 the 182 has painted on trim.
The 182T’s seats are available covered in either
fabric or leather, at no cost dierence (A2A opted for
the leather). The control yokes are leather bound for
better traction when hauling back that heavy elevator. The LED interior lighting makes aer dark flying a
pleasure. Unlike former 182’s painted spinners the “T”
model’s spinner is a spiy polished aluminium.
The “T” model also underwent a thorough aerodynamic drag reduction program that added four knots
over the “S” model under the same power:
1. Sleeker undercarriage leg and
wheel-pants fairing.
2. Improved wingtips with internally
mounted navigation lights.
3. Improved cowling promoting more
efficient air movement within.
4. Draggy wire antennae on the vertical fin replaced
with flat plate antennae aligned with the airflow.
5. Sleeker cockpit entry steps on the
main undercarriage legs.
Also, the 230-horsepower Lycoming IO-540 has been
de-rated to operate at 2,400 rpm max. which will surely
tend to increase the practical TBO (time between overhaul) and reduce maintenance costs. The “S” model’s
three-blade McCauley prop with curved leading and
trailing edges is standard equipment on the “T’.
Over the years pilot ergonomics has not been
ignored by Cessna. In the 182’s cockpit everything
is where you might expect it to be and all controls,
switches and buttons fall nicely to hand. Flap, gear
and trim controls feel like what they control, and
operate intuitively. However, the optional electric
elevator trim button on the pilot’s control yoke is
highly recommended being that the 182’s high wing
and generous quotient of power on a thrust line
some distance below it makes this aeroplane want
trim and plenty of it upon every change of power
and/or airspeed. While the C-182T has a 24 volt
electrical system, in keeping up with the times for
the pilot’s and passengers’ convenience, for the first
time there is now a 12 volt outlet plug for an outboard electrical device such as a GPS, laptop, IPad,
or whatever.
PERFORMANCE COMPARISON
Cessna 182S
SKYLANE
Engine
Horsepower 230 230 235
Top Speed 146 KTS. 150 KTS. 148 KTS.
Cruise speed 142 KTS. 145 KTS. 143 KTS.
Stall Speed (full flaps) 49 KTS. 49 KTS. 56 KTS.
Ground Roll 805 . 795 . 795 .
Over 50 obstacle 1,515 . 1,514 . 1,216 .
Rate Of Climb 865 fpm 924 fpm 1,010 fpm.
Ceiling 14,900 . 18,100 . 18,100 .
Gross Weight 3,100 lbs. 3,100 lbs. 3,000 lbs.
Empty Weight 1,775 lbs. 1,897 lbs. 1,608 lbs.
Useful load 1,213 lbs. 1,382 lbs.
Fuel Capacity 92 gal. 88 gal. 72 gal.
Range 817 nm. 968 nm. 650 nm.
Ground Roll 590 . 590 . 825 .
Over 50 obstacle 1,350 . 1,350 . 1,725 .
Lycoming
IO-540-AB1A5
Takeo
Landing
Cessna 182T
SKYLANE
Lycoming
IO-540-AB1A5
PIPER 235
DAKOTA
Lycoming
O-540-J3A5D
LIKE AN OLD, COMFORTABLE
PAIR OF SHOES
From its inception the Cessna 182 filled a need in
the GA industry that it still fills, and with distinction.
Steadily evolving since its introduction 1955 it has
never strayed far from its original incarnation. If a
pilot who flew the very first C-182 were to fly the latest
model, he or she would still find the cockpit to be a
familiar environment; and with the exception, perhaps,
of the flap control, originally manual and now electric,
everything would still essentially be where it always
had been and operate as it always did. He or she would
find it just as satisfying to fly as it always has been, like
putting on an old, comfortable pair of shoes; and that
quality, in the end, may be the Cessna 182’s greatest
achievement.
The Cessna 182 flies and operates like a basic,
simple aeroplane that any low-time Private Pilot could
easily check out in within an hour or two at most, while
it constantly delivers the high performance of a more
complex and demanding aeroplane. No doubt, as time
passes, continuing improvements will be made to the
venerable Cessna 182 that will surely enhance it in
many ways. But the basic aeroplane, that master of
virtually all aeronautic trades, will remain a familiar old
friend and perhaps the greatest of all GA aeroplanes.
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DESIGNER’S NOTES
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HE 182 TO ME, MEANS BUSINESS.
It’s large, comfortable, and tough.
T
Upon first entering the cabin, you are greeted with
an expansive, wide, and especially long interior. My
initial thought was, “wow, four people would be
very comfortable in here, even for long cross country
flights.” The rear baggage is also easily accessible just
behind the rear seat, making the entire lengthy interior
accessible in flight.
If you are familiar with it’s smaller brother, the
Skyhawk, your eyes should catch some additional
gauges including a CHT (cylinder head temp), a large
fuel gallons per hour gauge, manifold pressure, a blue
prop handle, a cowl flaps lever, and rudder trim. And in
general, the panel is wider and more expansive.
If you are like me, when you first step into a cockpit,
you will grab the yoke or stick to get a feel for the
controls and linkage. When I first pulled back on the
yoke in the Skylane, I thought “who put sand bags on
the elevator?” It’s that heavy, and by my own measurements, a Skyhawk requires 6 lbs to li the elevator while
the Skylane requires a whopping 25lbs. Having spoken
with several 182 owners and pilots, this heavy elevator is
a “love – hate” relationship, with most loving it.
Starting the powerful Lycoming 540 engine, you are
greeted by a throaty exhaust note. This plane sounds
mean. However, when you start to taxi, it reminds me
of an old 1970’s American car power steering. While the
rudders feel just as light as a feather, you’re aware that
these delicate forces are moving a large and powerful
vehicle.
At takeo, a 3-bladed prop has a distinctly strong
pull o the line and reaches 60 mph almost twice
as fast as the Skyhawk or Cherokee. As soon as you
li o into a climb, you will see climb rates between
1,000-2,000 / min. And being a high performance
airplane, aer takeo you will want to pull the throttle
back to 23” of manifold pressure, which is about 2/3rds
throttle. As you climb higher into thinner air, you can
slowly increase the throttle to maintain 23”. If you are
planning for a higher altitude cruise, you are in for a
treat because with it’s high li wing, drooping wing
tips, and 541 cu engine, it will continue to climb strong
right to your desired height.
Once you settle, and begin trimming for cruise, you
will see a nice increase of 15-20 KTS over the smaller
GA planes and the entire time you will also enjoy a
smoother ride from the higher wing loading.
Being a high wing airplane with power, any significant power or speed changes will require a strong pull
or push on the yoke until you adjust trim. This can get
especially heavy on final, if you don’t dial in enough
nose up trim. To quote Dudley Henriques, “If someone
told me they just bought a 182, my first question
When you start to slow down for your approach, you
need to be mindful of the trim at all times. Because if
you don’t have enough trim dialed in as you cross the
threshold, you may not be able to flare this properly.
This is not an airplane you fly with a thumb and finger;
you fly and especially land a Skylane with a tightly
clenched fist and a strong fore arm.
However, once in the flare (assuming you have it
properly trimmed), the heavy elevator really counters
any instinct to over flare. I find the Skylane to be one of
the easiest planes to land (again, if properly trimmed)
as the wing continues to fly well even at high angles of
attack. If you don’t have it trimmed properly, however,
you will be in for a hard touchdown.
When you do finally touch down, the feel of the
wheels digging into the pavement tells you just how
tough this bird’s landing gear is. Even if you did land
it very hard, the feeling is this plane could take a
lot more. The large tires dig into the pavement, and
the gear flexes beautifully. This is no doubt a plane
originally designed for some very tough terrain.
Once you have slowed down and exit the runway,
the feather light taxi forces feel as if someone laid a red
carpet out for you aer your flight. It’s just the easiest,
most pleasurable airplane to taxi. I cannot imagine
improving on this aspect.
No question, the Cessna 182 Skylane is an airplane
that can do everything you ask it too, and I can see
how owners can become quite attached and loyal to
their Skylane. It’s also no surprise why the Skylane is
the world’s most produced high performance general
aviation airplane of all time. I hope you enjoy your
Accu-Sim Skylane, as we have certainly enjoyed
making (and flying) it.
THE AIR TO AIR SIMULATIONS TEAM
would be “does it have
electric trim?” if not, I would
recommend they stop what
they are doing and get one
installed immediately.”
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FEATURES
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A true propeller simulation.
Interactive pre-flight inspection system.
Gorgeously constructed aircra, inside
and out, down to the last rivet.
Physics-driven sound environment.
Persistent airplane even when the
computer is o.
Four naturally animated passengers that
can sit in any seat.
3D Lights ‘M’ (built directly into the
model).
Complete maintenance hangar internal
systems and detailed engine tests
including compression checks.
Visual Real-Time Load Manager.
Piston combustion engine modeling.Air
comes in, it mixes with fuel and ignites,
parts move, heat up, and all work in
harmony to produce the wonderful
sound of a Lycoming 540 engine. Now
the gauges look beneath the skin of your
aircra and show you what Accu-Sim is
all about.
Authentic Bendix King Avionics stack
including the KMA 26 Audio Panel, two
KX 155A NAV/COMMS, KR 87 ADF, KT 76C
Transponder, KN 62A DME, and KAP 140
Two Axis Autopilot with altitude preselection. Optional KI 525 HSI.
Three in-sim avionics configurations
including no GPS, GPS 295, or the GNS
400. Built-in, automatic support for 3rd
party GNS 430 and 530, GTN 650 and 750.
Pure3D Instrumentation.
In cockpit pilot’s map.
Authentic fuel delivery includes priming
and proper mixture behavior. Mixture can
be tuned by the book using the EGT or by
ear. It’s your choice.
A2A specialized materials with authentic
metals, plastics, and rubber.
Oil pressure system is aected by oil
viscosity (oil thickness). Oil viscosity is
aected by oil temperature. Now when
you start the engine, you need to be
careful to give the engine time to warm.
Eight commercial aviation sponsors have
supported the project including Phillips
66 Aviation, Champion Aerospace, and
Knots2u speed modifications.
And much more …
Electric starter with accurate cranking
power.
Dynamic ground physics including both
hard pavement and so grass modeling.
Primer-only starts.
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QUICK START GUIDE
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HANCES ARE, IF YOU ARE
reading this manual, you
C
have properly installed
the A2A Accu-Sim C182 Skylane.
However, in the interest of
customer support, here is a brief
description of the setup process,
system requirements, and a quick
start guide to get you up quickly
and eiciently in your new aircra.
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
The A2A Simulations Accu-Sim C182
Skylane requires the following to run:
▶ Requires licensed copy of
Lockheed Martin Prepar3D
OPERATING SYSTEM:
▶ Windows XP SP2
▶ Windows Vista
▶ Windows 7
PROCESSOR:
2.0 GHz single core processor (3.0GHz and/or multiple
core processor or better recommended)
HARD DRIVE:
250MB of hard drive space or better
VIDEO CARD:
DirectX 9 compliant video card with at least 128 MB
video ram (512 MB or more recommended)
OTHER:
DirectX 9 hardware compatibility and audio card with
speakers and/or headphones
INSTALLATI ON
Included in your downloaded zipped (.zip) file, which
you should have been given a link to download aer purchase, is an executable (.exe) file which, when accessed,
contains the automatic installer for the soware.
To install, double click on the executable and follow
the steps provided in the installer soware. Once complete, you will be prompted that installation is finished.
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A2ASIMULATIONS
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CHAPTER NAME
IMPORTANT: If you have Microso
Security Essentials installed, be sure
to make an exception for Lockheed
Martin Prepar3D as shown right.
REALISM SETTINGS
The A2A Simulations Accu-Sim
C182 Skylane was built to a
very high degree of realism and
accuracy. Because of this, it was
developed using the highest realism settings available in Lockheed
Martin Prepar3D.
The following settings are
recommended to provide the most
accurate depiction of the flight
model. Without these settings,
certain features may not work
correctly and the flight model will
not perform accurately. The figure
below depicts the recommended
realism settings for the A2A AccuSim C182 Skylane.
FLIGHT MODEL
To achieve the highest degree of
realism, move all sliders to the
right. The model was developed in
this manner, thus we cannot attest
to the accuracy of the model if
these sliders are not set as shown
above. The only exception would
be “Crash tolerance.”
INSTRUMENTS AND LIGHTS
Enable “Pilot controls aircra
lights” as the name implies
for proper control of lighting.
Check “Enable gyro dri” to
provide realistic inaccuracies
which occur in gyro compasses
over time.
“Display indicated airspeed”
should be checked to provide a
more realistic simulation of the
airspeed instruments.
ENGINES
Ensure “Enable auto mixture” is
NOT checked. The C182 has a fully
working mixture control and this
will interfere with our extensively
documented and modeled mixture
system.
FLIGHT CONTROLS
It is recommended you have
“Auto-rudder” turned o if you
have a means of controlling the
rudder input, either via side
swivel/twist on your specific
joystick or rudder pedals.
ENGINE STRESS DAMAGES ENGINE
(Acceleration Only). It is
recommended you have this
UNCHECKED.
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QUICK FLYING TIPS
To Change Views Press A or SHIFT + A.
Keep the engine at or above 800 RPM. Failure to do
so may cause spark plug fouling. If your plugs do foul
(the engine will sound rough), try running the engine
at a higher RPM. You have a good chance of blowing
them clear within a few seconds by doing so. If that
doesn’t work, you may have to shut down and visit the
maintenance hangar.
Reduce power aer takeo. This is standard procedure
with high performance aircra.
On landing, raise your flaps once you touch down to
settle the aircra, pull back on the stick for additional
elevator braking while you use your wheel brakes.
Be careful with high-speed dives, as you can lose
control of your aircra if you exceed the max allowable
speed.
For landings, take the time to line up and plan your
approach. Keep your eye on the speed at all times.
Using in-sim accelerated time may cause
odd system behavior.
Keep throttle above when flying at high RPM to avoid
fouling plugs.
A quick way to warm your engines is to use auto start
(CTRL-E) or re-load your aircra while running.
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ACCU-SIM AND THE
COMBUSTION ENGINE
The piston pulls
in the fuel / air
mixture, then
compresses the
mixture on its
way back up.
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The spark plug
ignites the
compressed air
/ fuel mixture,
driving the piston
down (power),
then on it’s way
back up, the
burned mixture
is forced out
the exhaust.
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HE COMBUSTION ENGINE IS BASICALLY AN AIR PUMP. IT CREATES
power by pulling in an air / fuel mixture, igniting it, and turning the
T
explosion into usable power. The explosion pushes a piston down
that turns a cranksha. As the pistons run up and down with controlled
explosions, the cranksha spins. For an automobile, the spinning
cranksha is connected to a transmission (with gears) that is connected
to a drivesha, which is then connected to the wheels. This is literally
“putting power to the pavement.” For an aircra, the cranksha is
connected to a propeller sha and the power comes when that spinning
propeller takes a bite of the air and pulls the aircra forward.
The main dierence between an engine designed
for an automobile and one designed for an aircra is
the aircra engine will have to produce power up high
where the air is thin. To function better in that high,
thin air, a supercharger can be installed to push more
air into the engine.
OVERVIEW OF HOW THE ENGINE
WORKS AND CREATES POWER
Fire needs air. We need air. Engines need air. Engines
are just like us as – they need oxygen to work. Why?
Because fire needs oxygen to burn. If you cover a fire, it
goes out because you starved it of oxygen. If you have
ever used a wood stove or fireplace, you know when
you open the vent to allow more air to come in, the
fire will burn more. The same principle applies to an
engine. Think of an engine like a fire that will burn as
hot and fast as you let it.
Look at these four images on the le and you will
understand basically how an engine operates.
The piston pulls in the fuel / air mixture, then
compresses the mixture on its way back up.
The spark plug ignites the compressed air / fuel
mixture, driving the piston down (power), then on
it’s way back up, the burned mixture is forced out
the exhaust.
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ACCU-SIM AND THE COMBUSTION ENGINE
AIR TEMPERATURE
Have you ever noticed that your car engine runs
smoother and stronger in the cold weather? This is
because cold air is denser than hot air and has more
oxygen. Hotter air means less power.
Cold air is
denser and so
provides more
WEAK
oxygen to your
engine. More
oxygen means
more power.
STRONG
MIXTURE
Just before the air enters the combustion chamber it is
mixed with fuel. Think of it as an air / fuel mist.
A general rule is a 0.08% fuel to air ratio will produce
the most power. 0.08% is less than 1%, meaning for
every 100 parts of air, there is just less than 1 part fuel.
The best economical mixture is 0.0625%.
Why not just use the most economical
mixture all the time?
Because a leaner mixture means a hotter running
engine. Fuel actually acts as an engine coolant, so the
richer the mixture, the cooler the engine will run.
However, since the engine at high power will be
nearing its maximum acceptable temperature, you
would use your best power mixture (0.08%) when you
need power (takeo, climbing), and your best economy
mixture (.0625%) when throttled back in a cruise when
engine temperatures are low.
So, think of it this way:
▶ For HIGH POWER, use a RICHER mixture.
▶ For LOW POWER, use a LEANER mixture.
THE MIXTURE LEVER
Most piston aircra have a mixture lever in the
cockpit that the pilot can operate. The higher you
fly, the thinner the air, and the less fuel you need
to achieve the same mixture. So, in general, as you
climb you will be gradually pulling that mixture lever
backwards, leaning it out as you go to the higher,
thinner air.
How do you know when you have the right mixture?
The standard technique to achieve the proper mixture in
flight is to lean the mixture until you just notice the engine
getting a bit weaker, then richen the mixture until the
engine sounds smooth. It is this threshold that you are
dialing into your 0.08%, best power mixture. Be aware, if
you pull the mixture all the way back to the leanest posi
tion, this is mixture cuto, which will stop the engine.
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A2ASIMULATIONS
Just before the
air enters the
combustion chamber
it is mixed with
fuel. Think of it as
an air / fuel mist.
When you push the
throttle forward, you
are opening a valve
allowing your engine
to suck in more
fuel / air mixture.
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INDUCTION
As you now know, an engine is an air pump that runs
based on timed explosions. Just like a forest fire, it
would run out of control unless it is limited. When you
push the throttle forward, you are opening a valve
allowing your engine to suck in more fuel / air mixture.
When at full throttle, your engine is pulling in as much
air as your intake system will allow. It is not unlike a
watering hose – you crimp the hose and restrict the
water. Think of full power as you just opening that
water valve and letting the water run free. This is 100%
full power.
In general, we don’t run an airplane engine at full
power for extended periods of time. Full power is only
used when it is absolutely necessary, sometimes on
takeo, and otherwise in an emergency situation that
requires it. For the most part, you will be ‘throttling’
your motor, meaning you will be be setting the limit.
MANIFOLD PRESSURE = AIR PRESSURE
You have probably watched the weather on television
and seen a large letter L showing where big storms are
located. L stands for LOW BAROMETRIC PRESSURE
(low air pressure). You’ve seen the H as well, which
stands for HIGH BAROMETRIC PRESSURE (high air
pressure). While air pressure changes all over the
world based on weather conditions, these air pressure
changes are minor compared to the dierence in air
pressure with altitude. The higher the altitude, the
much lower the air pressure.
On a standard day (59°F), the air pressure at sea
level is 29.92 in. Hg BAROMETRIC PRESSURE. To keep
things simple, let’s say 30 in. Hg is standard air pressure. You have just taken o and begin to climb. As you
reach higher altitudes, you notice your rate of climb
slowly getting lower. This is because the higher you fly,
the thinner the air is, and the less power your engine
can produce. You should also notice your MANIFOLD
PRESSURE decreases as you climb as well.
Why does your manifold pressure
decrease as you climb?
Because manifold pressure is air pressure, only it’s
measured inside your engine’s intake manifold. Since
your engine needs air to breath, manifold pressure is
a good indicator of how much power your engine can
produce.
Now, if you start the engine and idle, why
does the manifold pressure go way down?
When your engine idles, it is being choked of air. It is
given just enough air to sustain itself without stalling.
If you could look down your carburetor throat when an
engine is idling, those throttle plates would look like they
were closed. However if you looked at it really closely,
you would notice a little space on the edge of the throttle
valve. Through that little crack, air is streaming in. If you
turned your ear toward it, you could probably even hear
a loud sucking sound. That is how much that engine is
trying to breath. Those throttle valves are located at the
base of your carburetor, and your carburetor is bolted
on top of your intake manifold. Just below those throttle
valves and inside your intake manifold, the air is in a near
vacuum. This is where your manifold pressure gauge’s
sensor is, and when you are idling, that sensor is reading
that very low air pressure in that near vacuum.
As you increase power, you will notice your manifold
pressure comes up. This is simply because you have
used your throttle to open those throttle plates more,
and the engine is able to get the air it wants. If you
apply full power on a normal engine, that pressure
will ultimately reach about the same pressure as the
outside, which really just means the air is now equal
ized as your engine’s intake system is running wide
open. So if you turned your engine o, your manifold
pressure would rise to the outside pressure. So on a
standard day at sea level, your manifold pressure with
the engine o will be 30”.
IGNITION
The ignition system provides timed sparks to trigger timed explosions. For safety, aircra are usually
equipped with two completely independent ignition
systems. In the event one fails, the other will continue
to provide sparks and the engine will continue to run.
This means each cylinder will have two spark plugs
installed.
An added advantage to having two sparks instead
of one is more sparks means a little more power.
The pilot can select Ignition 1, Ignition 2, or BOTH by
using the MAG switch. You can test that each ignition
is working on the ground by selecting each one and
watching your engine RPM. There will be a slight drop
when you go from BOTH to just one ignition system.
This is normal, provided the drop is within your pilot’s
manual limitation.
The air and fuel
are compress
by the piston,
then the ignition
system adds the
spark to create
a controlled
explosion.
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ACCU-SIM AND THE COMBUSTION ENGINE
ENGINE TEMPERATURE
All sorts of things create heat in an engine, like friction, air temp, etc., but nothing produces heat like
COMBUSTION. The hotter the metal, the weaker its
strength.
Aircra engines are made of aluminum alloy, due
to its strong but lightweight properties. Aluminum
maintains most of its strength up to about 150°C. As
the temperature approaches 200°C, the strength starts
to drop. An aluminum rod at 0°C is about 5× stronger
than the same rod at 250°C, so an engine is most
prone to fail when it is running hot. Keep your engine
temperatures down to keep a healthy running engine.
LUBRICATION SYSTEM (OIL)
An internal combustion engine has precision machined
metal parts that are designed to run against other metal
surfaces. There needs to be a layer of oil between those
surfaces at all times. If you were to run an engine and pull
the oil plug and let all the oil drain out, aer just minutes,
the engine would run hot, slow down, and ultimately
seize up completely from the metal on metal friction.
There is a minimum amount of oil pressure required
for every engine to run safely. If the oil pressure falls
below this minimum, then the engine parts are in
danger of making contact with each other and incurring
damage. A trained pilot quickly learns to look at his oil
pressure gauge as soon as the engine starts, because if
the oil pressure does not rise within seconds, then the
engine must be shut down immediately.
Without the layer of oil between
the parts, an engine will
quickly overheat and seize.
Above is a simple illustration of a cranksha that is
located between two metal caps, bolted together. This
is the very cranksha where all of the engine’s power
ends up. Vital oil is pressure-injected in between these
surfaces when the engine is running. The only time the
cranksha ever physically touches these metal caps is at
startup and shutdown. The moment oil pressure drops
below its minimum, these surfaces make contact. The
cranksha is where all the power comes from, so if you
starve this vital component of oil, the engine can seize.
However, this is just one of hundreds of moving parts
in an engine that need a constant supply of oil to run
properly.
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MORE CYLINDERS, MORE POWER
The very first combustion engines were just one or
two cylinders. Then, as technology advanced, and the
demand for more power increased, cylinders were
made larger. Ultimately, they were not only made
larger, but more were added to an engine.
Below are some illustrations to show how an
engine may be configured as more cylinders are
added.
The more cylinders you add to an engine, the more
heat it produces. Eventually, engine manufacturers started to add additional “rows” of cylinders.
Sometimes two engines would literally be mated
together, with the 2nd row being rotated slightly so the
cylinders could get a direct flow of air.
THE PRATT & WHITNEY R4360
Pratt & Whitney took this even further, creating the
R4360, with 28 Cylinders (this engine is featured in the
A2A Boeing 377 Stratocruiser). The cylinders were run
so deep, it became known as the “Corn Cob.” This is the
most powerful piston aircra engine to reach production. There are a LOT of moving parts on this engine.
TORQUE VS HORSEPOWER
Torque is a measure of twisting force. If you put a foot
long wrench on a bolt, and applied 1 pound of force at the
handle, you would be applying 1 foot-pound of torque to
that bolt. The moment a spark triggers an explosion, and
that piston is driven down, that is the moment that piston
is creating torque, and using that torque to twist the
cranksha. With a more powerful explosion, comes more
torque. The more fuel and air that can be exploded, the
more torque. You can increase an engine’s power by either
making bigger cylinders, adding more cylinders, or both.
Horsepower, on the other hand, is the total power that
engine is creating. Horsepower is calculated by combin
ing torque with speed (RPM). If an engine can produce
500 foot pounds of torque at 1,000 RPM and produce the
same amount of torque at 2,000 RPM, then that engine is
producing twice the horsepower at 2,000 RPM than it is
at 1,000 RPM. Torque is the twisting force. Horsepower is
how fast that twisting force is being applied.
If your airplane has a torque meter, keep that engine
torque within the limits or you can break internal components. Typically, an engine produces the most torque
in the low to mid RPM range, and highest horsepower in
the upper RPM range.
-
The “Corn Cob,”
the most powerful
piston aircraft
engine to reach
production.
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SPECIFICATIONS
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