A2A Cessna 182 User Manual

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A2ASIMULATIONS
C182
ACCU-SIM C182 SKYLANE
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ACCU-SIM C182
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A2ASIMULATIONS
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ACCU-SIM C182 SKYLANE
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CONTENTS
6 THE CESSNA 182 16 DESIGNER’S NOTES 18 FEATURES 20 QUICK START GUIDE 24 ACCU-SIM AND THE COMBUSTION ENGINE 30 SPECIFICATIONS 34 CHECKLISTS 40 PROCEDURES EXPLAINED 46 PERFORMANCE 62 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES 68 EMERGENCIES EXPLAINED 72 AIRPLANE & SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION 86 AIRPLANE HANDLING, SERVICE & MAINTENANCE 98 ACCU-SIM AND THE C182 SKYLANE 102 CREDITS
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THE CESSNA 182
The Jack of All Trades and Master of All
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HE MASTER OF ALL TRADES? WELL, PERHAPS THAT IS A BIT
elaborate; however, the Cessna 182 is the proven master of a great
T
many aeronautical “trades”, indeed. So, what are the “trades” that we want a General Aviation (GA) aeroplane to be the master of? Well, we want it to be fast, carry lots of fuel, people and baggage, climb well, stall gently, be easy to land and fly, be economical to operate and maintain, and generally be a safe and pleasant ride for us and our passengers -­that’s a lot to ask of one aeroplane. Aer all, the physical world is based upon compromise and give and take; what is gained here is lost there, etc. Because of this necessary compromise, when it comes to mastering all of these “trades”, virtually every aeroplane fails to make the grade. Some exhibit very high performance but are a handful to fly for the average pilot and others are as gentle as a puppy, but do not perform so well.
That ubiquitous physical compromise is present in most instances.
NOW CONSIDER THE CESSNA 182:
It has a light and simple fixed gear but it can cruise as fast, or nearly so, as many retractable gear aircra. It can haul over 1,200 pounds of passengers, fuel and/or cargo. It will climb at nearly 1,000 fpm fully loaded and has an excellent ceiling and higher altitude perfor­mance even without turbocharging due to its generous supply of power. Due to very large and eective flaps, its slow speed and departed flight regimes are excel­lent, predictable and better in most circumstances than other aircra in its class. Accordingly, a pilot may get it in and out of very small fields with confidence. Its engine is reliable, easily maintained and not unduly thirsty for fuel or oil. While it has a constant speed propeller, it is a simple and basic aeroplane to operate that may be quickly mastered by even relatively low­time pilots. It possesses a large and comfortable cabin for four plus a capacious baggage compartment. While it is maneouverable and quick on the controls, it is also stable around all axes and possesses no dangerous or surprising traits. It is an excellent IFR aeroplane. The C-182 and feels substantial and robust; it is well-made and can operate in and out of fairly rough airstrips. Its high wing allows unlimited downward visibility. Its rear cabin window gives a pilot increased visibility and grants a more spacious and open feeling to rear passengers.
The C-182T will cruise at 140KTAS at 10,000 while burning only 12 gallons an hour or so and this while carrying full fuel (88 U. S. gallons), four adults and some baggage and being a gentle and predictable aeroplane for the weekend pilot to confidently fly with his family. Since 2005 the Garmin G1000 Glass Cockpit has been available in the C-182. This makes instrument and low visibility flying easier and safer.
While practical and simple to operate, many consider the high-performance capability of Cessna 182 to be the ultimate aeroplane for the casual, sportsman flyer.
The Master of all trades? Well, almost all. It cannot break the sound barrier or reach 40,000. However, it is the master of so many trades that really matter, that no one could reasonably ask for more.
HOW?
By now you ought to have the feeling that there is very little that the C-182 cannot do - without ease, grace and élan. So, how did Cessna achieve this aeronautical superlative?
As any dog breeder will tell you, ancestry makes a great deal of dierence. The C- 182’s immediate ancestor is the Cessna 180, the 182 being essentially the tricycle gear version of the 180. In creating the C-180, the first thing Cessna did was to borrow what was an already proven wing design from the all metal
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THE CESSNA 182
C-170/172. Below its high wing, however, the C-180/182 is an entirely new aeroplane.
The C-182’s cowling is larger and fuselage is longer than the C-172’s, and the cabin does not taper rear­wards adding a good deal of useful space. The C-182’s undercarriage is sturdier and more robust to handle its heavier weight. The C-182’s six cylinder 230 h. p. engine is almost 60% more powerful than that of the C-172’s but its gross weight is only 30% greater. This gives the C- 182 a very respectable power- loading of 13.52 lb./ hp. While the C-172 and the C-182 share the same wing, that wing is more than large enough to give the C-182 a relatively light wing- loading of 17.8 lb./sq.. It is this combination of high power and low weight which produces the excellent performance that the C-182 demonstrates.
Greater power and a larger propeller produce more P-eect and torque which require appropriately sized tail surfaces to counter them. Accordingly, the C-182’s tail surfaces (fin/rudder and stabilizer/elevators) were made larger to accommodate the additional power up front. While this results in a somewhat heavy feeling elevator whilst on the ground and at slow speeds, in the air the elevator is not disproportionately heavy as compared to other aircra in its class.
Taking all of these design elements together, pound for pound the C-182 emerges as one of the most capable GA aircra of all time, a true Master of All Trades. Superlative performance has been justly rewarded, with over 23.000 having been built, the C-182 is the second most popular and numerously produced high performance GA aeroplane of all time, just aer the C-172.
WHY?
So, why did Cessna go to so much trouble to create an aeroplane with all of the ability that the C-182 pos­sesses? As usual, there is more than one answer. One reason was due to market conditions. Aer the end of World War II, there was a fast growing demand for the so-called bush plane. The simplest definition of a bush plane is one which will be primarily operated in and out of rough, short and remote fields and waterways; those which could not in any real way be considered to be airports or airfields.
It has been long established that high -wing, tail­wheel aeroplanes are best for bush flying. High wings sit well above the sometimes tall brush and far from stones and other debris which might be kicked up. The sturdy main gear of a tailwheel aeroplane is best suited for rough landings in fields which might actually damage a more delicate nosewheel strut. Also, a tailwheel aeroplane’s propeller is higher o the ground when taking o, landing and taxiing than the propeller of a nosewheel aeroplane, putting it farther away from stones, etc.
Cessna’s high wing aeroplanes, with a suicient amount
of power and a tailwheel are ready-made for bush flying. The 170 had almost all of the features required for a bush aeroplane. What was wanted was a larger, more robust airframe and an increase in power. Thus came the C-180, which, with a nose wheel is the C-182.
BUSH LEAGUE
Contrary to popular belief, bush flying did not begin aer W.W. II.; it began in Canada in 1919. Ellwood Wilson was a Canadian forester who was employed by the Laurentide Company located in Quebec. Laurentide trained foresters whom they hired out to large lumber companies. Of forester Wilson’s many duties, surely very high in importance was the hopefully early detec­tion and reportage of forest fires. One day Mr. Wilson had a brilliant idea: The forests were too vast for even hundreds of foresters like himself to properly patrol and map; however, from an aeroplane the entire forest could be well-patrolled and mapped and any sign of smoke that might indicate a burgeoning fire could be instantly detected and reported.
He obtained two surplus Curtiss HS-2L flying boats from the Canadian government. Between 4 and 8 June, 1919, the first aerial fire-patrol and photography mis­sions were piloted by RCAS Captain Stuart Graham and engineer Walter Kahre. One of their cross-country flights of 645 miles to Lac-àla- Tortue, was at that time, the longest cross-country flight in Canada.
This and subsequent forest patrol flights of the Curtiss JS-2Ls are considered to be the very first bush aircra operations. Laurentide Company initially financed these flights which received tremendous publicity in Canada. Soon thereaer a new subsidiary was formed, Laurentide Air Services, Ltd., the first exclusively bush operator in Eastern Canada.
Curtiss HS-2L in military use during W. W. I.
A Curtiss HS-2L of Laurentide Air Services in the early 1920s.
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An Airco DH-4 which was used in Air Mail service in the 1920’s.
Piper J-3 “Grasshopper”.
Very popular for bush ying is the Piper Super Cub with oversized tundra tires for rough elds.
Curtiss JN-4 “Jenny”
Meanwhile, in Western Canada, in Edmonton, Wilfred May and his brother Court began the first commercial bush flying business in that area, called May Airplanes, Ltd. Flying a surplus Curtiss JN- 4 “Jenny” they, along with pilot George Gorman and mechanic Peter Derbyshire flew newspapers and small packages to outlying towns and villages.
Soon, these nascent companies were recognized to be successfully providing a vital service in the rugged and oen isolated area of central Canada. In 1919, Carl Ben Eielson, an Alaskan originally from North Dakota, began flying passengers in a surplus “Jenny” from Fairbanks to and from outlying villages. In 1924 the U.S. Post Oice granted Eielson a license to deliver mail in and around the Fairbanks area, but now in a far more powerful DH-4.
From these humble beginnings, bush flying in Canada, Alaska and the northern continental United States quickly blossomed into a major industry with thousands of aeroplanes connecting what were formerly remote and wild places with the rest of the world. Food, medicine, doctors and other vital com­modities and people were, for the first time, now able to be delivered to so many remote regions which had been formerly bere of these necessities.
Aer W. W. II, aircra manufactures recognised that bush flying companies would be operating again with­out the restrictions upon civilian aviation that the war, out of necessity, had applied. It was not long before many of the Piper Cubs and Super Cubs, Stinsons, Aeroncas, all of the so -called “Grasshoppers” of the U. S. and Canadian Air Services began to show their age
-- rough field and water flying taking its inevitable toll on them. New aircra to replace these noble veterans were wanted.
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THE CESSNA 182
THE CESSNA “AIRMASTER” - WHERE IT ALL BEGINS — FOR A WHILE
In 1935 Cessna introduced what was to be a very useful bush and cargo single-engine aeroplane- the C-145/165 ‘Airmaster”. These were rugged, substantial aircra made of wood and steel tubing with fabric covering. The wing was cantilever and did not require any exter­nal struts. Like virtually all aircra of that era it had a tail wheel. It was ideal for rough country operations. With its capacious fuselage and an excellent useful load of 970 lbs. and later well over 1,100 lbs, with the 165 hp (123 kW) Warner engine installed. It was a very capable rough country aeroplane.
While Cessna’s production of civilian Airmasters ended at the U. S. ’s entry on to W.W. II on December 8, 1941, a few Airmasters, now called UC-77B, UC-77C, and UC-94 entered the into the military services of the U.S. A number of them were also used by the Air Forces of Australia and Finland.
The powerful and rugged 4-place, high wing Airmaster is the direct ancestor of all post- war Cessna single –engine aircra.
Civilian 1938 Cessna C-165 “Airmaster”
Cessna C-37 Airmaster set up for bush operations with removed wheel pants and large tyres.
THE END OF THE WAR AND A NEW BEGINNING FOR CESSNA
In 1945, Cessna produced its only post-war radial­engined, five place aeroplane, the C-190/195. While Cessna had first designed and flown the 190 in 1945, it was not until 1947 that it was introduced it to the public. This is possibly because Cessna was hesitant to jump back into the post-war general aviation market with such an expensive aeroplane (which apparently did not at all daunt Beechcra). Instead, the first Cessna introduced aer the war was the modest, two-place, 65 hp C-120 which was available to the public in 1946.
The sole dierence between a C-190 and a C-195 is its engine: the C-190 having a 240 h. p. Continental W670-23 radial engine, and a C-195 a 300 h. p. Jacobs R-755 radial engine. Both engines have a diameter of 42” which makes the 190/195’s forward fuselage quite large and most capacious. With seating for five (two up front, three a) the 195’s useful load is 1,250 lbs. permitting full 75 gallon tanks plus four - 200 lb. or five
- 160 lb. souls on board. Its published cruise is 170mph (148k; 274km/h) at 70% power at 7, 500’. This was remarkable performance for a light aeroplane in 1947 and quite similar to the modern C-182.
While the 190/195’s wing is, as with the pre-war “Airmaster”, a cantilever design, unlike the “Airmaster” the C-190/195 is of all- metal construction. Cessna apparently came to the understanding (as would Piper later in the decade) that manufacturing fabric-covered aeroplanes is highly labor intensive and therefore more costly to build than an all-metal aircra. The C-190/195’s airfoil is the familiar NACA 2412 as used by Cessnas’ 170, 150, 172 and 182 to this day.
An expensive “luxury” type, the C-190/195 was not intended or expected to greatly fuel the post-war private General Aviation market. These large, 5-place aircra were intended primarily to be used for commercial char­ter and business transportation rather than as a light aeroplane for personal use. Many of the 190/195s were converted to floatplanes which made them very useful commuter aircra in areas where there were few or no airports. In this sense it could be said that the C-190/195 was a bush plane, although bush planes are generally not so well-appointed nor so elegant.
As impressive as its performance may be, the mas­sive C-190/195 was too costly, its thirsty radial engine required a good deal of maintenance, and its general appearance, while sleek and attractive, was a definite throwback to aircra of the thirties. Cessna understood that something new was wanted in the brave new era of peace.
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SOMETHING NEW
Introduced in 1946, the basic and aordable 2-place Cessna 120 was an instant success. It spawned the C-140 which was then slightly stretched and in 1948 became the four-place 170. The 170 eventually
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A Cessna C-195 on amphibious oats. A very capable bush aeroplane.
1949 Cessna 195. Sleek, powerful …and expensive.
morphed into the all-metal, tricycle undercarriage Cessna 172 in 1956, which is where the modern era of Cessna aircra begins.
The whole story of the how the C-172 came to be and how it evolved may be found in the A2A C-172 Manual and, accordingly, will not be repeated here. I do com­mend it to you, dear reader, even though I must admit that I wrote it. Nevertheless, you still may find it worthy of a glance or two, as therein is discussed the genesis and early development of the post- W.W. II Cessna line of light aircra.
All went swimmingly well for a while, but Cessna became inundated by the pleas of those who loved the C-170 but wanted to go faster and carry more load. Some of those were bush pilots who operated in and out of the most primitive places on earth and who required aeroplanes with lots of power, load capacity, high performance and strength. Others simply wished to take their families on trips without having to land for fuel so oen.
While the C-170 was an excellent, relatively inexpen­sive personal aeroplane for use in relatively civilized places, it did not have suicient power, load carrying capability and overal performance necessary for serious bush flying (and it is all serious). As of 1952, except for the C-190/195, Cessna did not produce an aeroplane that could be inexpensively used as a bush plane.
Surely tired and frustrated at hearing how rival Piper Cubs and Super Cubs were hauling goods and people all around the remote northern regions, in 1952 Cessna decided to satisfy these clamouring requests and began to design the C-180.
THE CESSNA 180 - A RUGGED, HEAVY HAULER
The first thing that Cessna did in designing the 180 was to slightly increase the size of the fuselage to accommodate a new, more powerful engine, the 225h. p. Continental O-470-A, O-470-J, and later a 230h. p.
Continental O-470-K engine. Some 180s have engines up to 300 h.p. The 180’s larger fuselage also gave the cabin a bit more room, particularly in width, and tail surfaces were re-designed to accommodate the increase in power.
On 26 May, 1952, with Cessna’s chief engineering test pilot William D. Thompson at the controls, the first Cessna 180, N41697, made its maiden flight. It was certified by the FAA’s predecessor, the CAA (Civil Aeronautics Authority), on 23 December of that year; a nice Christmas present indeed for Cessna to give itself. During 1953, the C-180 was made available to the public. This was the “Golden Year” of aviation, in that it was 50 years since the Wright Brothers made what is considered to be the first powered flight; something Cessna did not fail to mention in its advertisements for the 180.
C-170 tail surfaces were originally round-shaped.
The more powerful C-180 tail surfaces are square- shaped and larger. This was later adopted for the C-170.
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THE CESSNA 182
Even though the Cessna 180 has the same wing as the later model all-metal Cessna 170, the 180 is a very dierent aeroplane. It is heavier, more powerful and more capable in every way. Unlike the C-170, C-180 with its 1,100 lb. useful load can comfortably carry four adults and full fuel. Here is a basic comparison:
Cessna 170 Cessna 180
Empty Weight 1,205 lbs. 1,700 lbs. Useful Load 950 lbs. 1,100 lbs. Power 145 h.p. 230 h.p. Cruise 105 K 142 K Stall (Full flaps at MGW) 43 K 48 K Range (Statute miles) 590 1,024 Absolute Ceiling 15,500 . 17,700 . Rate of Climb at MGW 590 fpm 1,100 fpm
Without question the Cessna 180 performed very well with its six- cylinder horizontally opposed 230 h. p. Continental engine. It was just what the bush pilots were looking for: an economical but hardy, heavy loader that could go long distances quickly without having to re-fuel. This was a much better deal than the larger C- 190/195, which was far more expensive to purchase, maintain and operate. It was even more capable and rugged than the excellent C-37 Airmaster.
FOLLOW THE MONEY
All of this was just fine; however, Cessna was not only in the business of selling aeroplanes to bush pilots, as commercially sound as that was. The really plush market in the burgeoning and prosperous middle 1950’s was private pilots who wanted a fast aeroplane that could carry themselves and their families for long distances and not cost the Earth to do so. The C-170 was fine but its performance was, to be charitable, not spectacular.
However, the C-180 could do all that the C-170 could not. Cessna tried to sell the C-180 to private pilots but universally met with strong resistance over one matter in particular - the C-180 has a tail wheel. In the middle of the 1950’s new aeroplanes had nosewheels.
More and more private pilots of that era were no longer content nor comfortable with an aeroplane with a tail wheel with its inherent instability on the ground, the high possibility of a groundloop at landing and the poor visibility over the nose when taxiing. Once a pilot had experienced flying an aeroplane with a nosewheel, he or she was not willing to go back to the tailwheel. Accordingly, Cessna had no good argument regarding this when pilots baulked at the C-180. The solution was more than obvious and Cessna, with yawning empty coers anxiously awaiting to be filled with the loot to be gained by new purchases, went to work to remedy the deficiency.
IT LOOKS SO EASY, BUT…
Sometime during 1954, Cessna’s Board of Directors were convinced that it would be in Cessna’s best
Piper PA-22 Tri-Pacer. Note­fully steerable nosewheel
interest for the future to put nosewheels on their two top selling aeroplanes. They likely did not consider that this was going to be a big problem. Aer all, they were already manufacturing two very popular prime candidates for this modification, the C-170 and the newer C-180. It is likely that the Board had for some time resisted this rather expensive and extensive change until it was painfully pointed out to them that Cessna had indeed fallen far behind their competitors in this regard, particularly Piper with its prescient tricycle undercarriage Tri-Pacer which was introduced to the public in early 1951. Not having produced any single engine aircra with a nosewheel by 1954 was certainly a major concern for Cessna. Ultimately convinced to go ahead, the Board directed Cessna’s engineers to go to the drawing board and come up with a satisfactory solution. However, put­ting a nosewheel on an existing tailwheel aircra is much easier said than done.
SO, WHAT’S THE BIG DEAL?
First, the main gear must be moved back behind the centre of gravity (C. G.) so that the aeroplane will firmly sit forward on its new nosewheel. This may sound at first blush to be a simple and obvious matter, but it is more of a problem than it might appear with respect to a high wing aeroplane such as the Cessna 180. One reason (of many) for the complication is because the main undercarriage is necessarily attached to the bottom of the C-180’s fuselage and that fuselage has already been designed to absorb and transfer the stresses of taxiing and landing at the former, more for­ward attachment point of its main undercarriage legs. Low-wing, tailwheel aeroplanes which are re-designed for a nosewheel have many of the same problems as those of high-wing aeroplanes, however moving the main undercarriage attachment point farther a on the wing is a simpler matter.
Of course, there are a few exceptions to the bottom of fuselage location for main undercarriage attachment on a high-wing, nosewheel aeroplane, particularly with regard to some twin engine, high-wing aeroplanes such as the Aero Commander, the Mitsubishi MU-2 and the Britten-Norman BN-2
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Islander. In each of these examples, the main gear assembly is located in the engine nacelles. High­wing singles such as the C-180 do not have such a convenient place to attach the main gear as do those aeroplanes. Accordingly, the internal structure of the fuselage of the formerly “standard” undercarriage C-180 had perforce to be altered. It required that the new stress points, created by the relocated main gear, adequately transfer and distribute rough-field taxiing and landing forces into the fuselage struc
­ture; forces which in the real world are not always perfectly gentle and benign.
The exact placement rearward of the main gear must also be resolved. This is a complicated matter of bal­ance and compromise that involves the consideration of a number of matters such as:
1. The location of the C. G. within a useable range
after the nosewheel is installed. This must take into account the weight of the nosewheel assembly, since its position is well forward with respect to the aircraft datum or fuselage station. While the main undercarriage sits slightly behind the C.G. and having two wheels and legs, etc. is heavier, it does not necessarily offset the forward moment arm of the new nosewheel assembly.
2. The balance of the aeroplane when on the
ground. The main undercarriage legs must be placed far enough aft to provide a stable platform for the aeroplane to sit upon. It must also be far enough aft to prevent the aeroplane from tending to easily tip back onto its tailskid under normal operating, load and wind conditions; however…
3. The main undercarriage legs must not be so far
aft so as to prevent rotation or create too high a load for the elevator to lift the nose on takeoff. A certain aft placement of the main undercarriage legs might make for a very stable aeroplane whilst on the ground, but if it is placed too far aft the resulting geometry may cause a situa­tion in which the elevator may not be powerful enough to lift the nose during the takeoff.
LEFT: Aero Commander note- main undercarriage in engine nacelle
CENTER: Britten-Norman BN-2 Islander. Note- main undercarriage attached to engine nacelle
RIGHT: Grumman AA-5B “Tiger”­note simple non-steerable, castering nosewheel
Other considerations include:
1. The nosewheel assembly’s added mass
and drag below the data line which will likely cause pitch – down.
2. The additional weight of the nosewheel
which reduces the aeroplane’s useful load.
3. The new tri-cycle geometry must allow for
precise and positive braking, taxiing.
4. The placement of the main undercar-
riage legs must not prevent and ought to aid entry into the aeroplane.
5. The transfer of forces during taxi-
ing and landing must not unduly dis­turb the pilot and passengers.
There are probably a few more considerations as
well, but I presume that the point has been made.
Once these many thorny problems are resolved to the best of the design engineers’ ability, the matter of the nose wheel assembly itself and its placement must be addressed. The area beneath the engine and its accessories where there was little to no space must now house the nosewheel assembly attach­ment. This includes a strut of suicient strength and robustness to withstand rough field taxiing and less than gentle landings. Not only that, but the nosewheel’s steering mechanism and its linkages must also be considered. In some nosewheel aircra such as the Grumman AA-5A “Cheetah” and the AA-5B “Tiger”, the Tecnam P Twenty-Ten and many homebuilt aircra, this particular problem at least has been simplified by installing a free- castering nosewheel whereby all ground steering is achieved by dierential braking and not by a direct link to the nosewheel. Additionally, free-castering nosewheel permits a very tight turning circle and many pilots report that they like it better than a steerable nosewheel. Cessna desired to provide a fully steering nosewheel as did Piper’s Tri-Pacer and many other aircra, so the complex linkages from the rudder pedals to the nosewheel had to be designed and space for all of this had to be found.
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THE CESSNA 182
PRESENTING: (APPROPRIATE FANFARE) THE CESSNA 182
In November 1955 the C-172 was introduced to the public, albeit as a 1956 model. Within a few months, in early 1956, the C-182 took its opening bow. It was an instant suc cess in the GA market. The following year the C-182 was upgraded and became the “Skylane”. Bush pilots, how ever, continued and continue to date to operate C-180s as even the best nose wheel system is considered to be too delicate for operations in rough country. With over 23,000 C-182/Skylanes having been produced to date the C-182/ Skylane has certainly proven to be a popular ride.
IT KEEPS GETTING BETTER, BUT THE ’PLANE REMAINS THE SAME
The C-182/Skylane did not sit dormant for very long before improvements and modifications were incorporated by Cessna. Engines, landing gear material, larger windows, and cabin appointments have changed and its useful load has steadily increased. However, even with all of these changes, the Cessna 182 remains the same simple, fast, heavy hauling, comfortable, easy to fly aeroplane that it was when it was first introduced in November, 1955.
Sure, over the years there have been a few modifica­tions to the airframe, the vertical fin and rudder being swept back with “D” model in 1960, and the most dramatic and obvious change being the cut down rear fuselage and the installation of “Omni-Vision” (a rear cabin window) with “E” model in 1961. In 1996, with the “S” model, the familiar Continental O-470-U engine was replaced by the fuel injected Lycoming IO-540 of similar power. Other than that the 182’s changes have been modest and subtle, updated radios, fancier cabin appointments and such.
The retractable gear R182 was introduced in 1977, and a turbocharged T182 was introduced in 1980. Both retractable gear and a turbocharged engine were available in the TR182 in 1978. In 2001, a turbocharged
-
-
The very rst Cessna 182 (N4966E)
ABOVE RIGHT: 1956 C-182 panel with a few radios, etc. added.
BELOW RIGHT: 1956 C-182. Even with a nosewheel ip- overs are possible.
and fuel injected engine was available in the T182T. The introduction of the Garmin G1000 “Glass Cockpit” was introduced as standard equipment in 2004. A diesel engined 182, the T182JT-A, was tested in 2012 and set for delivery to its first customer this year.
TH E C-18 2T
With each new model the Cessna 182 shows thought­ful improvements which enhance its usefulness and convenience, sometimes in large gulps, sometime in smaller ones. The “T” model 182 is no exception and displays a number of changes from the previous “S” model.
Cockpit” (not modelled) there are other electronic enhancements. Recognizing that the electrical system of the 182 had become more sophisticated as well as more capacious. The avionics master switch now con­trols a split electrical bus. Also, there is an additional main bus with a standby battery position. For safety in the event that there should occur an electrical system malfunction the avionics are divided onto two discrete, separately switchable busses. Should a particular component or group of components malfunction and it becomes necessary to shed electrical load on the main system, basic navigation and/or communication capa­bility may be preserved by shutting down power to Nav I or II and/or Com I or II while leaving the other radios operational. Bus #1 switches the Honeywell Bendix/ King KLN 94, if so equipped, plus the #1 Nav/Com. Bus #2 switches the Bendix/King KMD 550 multifunction display (MFD), if so equipped, the #2 Nav/Com and the transponder.
practice of dividing the most important instruments between electric and hydraulic power, so that if one system should fail, at least half of the instruments would still operate.The Directional Gyro (or HSI if one
Aside from the optional Garmin G1000 “Glass
The “T” model continues Cessna’s safe and wise
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is installed) is powered by the electrical system while the Attitude Indicator (Artificial Horizon) is driven by the vacuum system. There are two constantly working vacuum pumps in C-182T’s with Nav I and Nav II equip­ment and one vacuum pump in Nav III 182s.
Cosmetically the 182”T” continues the practice of painting on the trim over the white base colour. Previously, and prior to 2003 the trim stripes were decals which were clear coated to preserve them from the weather, etc. Not surprisingly, this did not work out so well in all instances and more than a few decal­trimmed 182Ts are showing a bit of ragged wear. Since 2003 the 182 has painted on trim.
The 182T’s seats are available covered in either fabric or leather, at no cost dierence (A2A opted for the leather). The control yokes are leather bound for better traction when hauling back that heavy eleva­tor. The LED interior lighting makes aer dark flying a pleasure. Unlike former 182’s painted spinners the “T” model’s spinner is a spiy polished aluminium.
The “T” model also underwent a thorough aerody­namic drag reduction program that added four knots over the “S” model under the same power:
1. Sleeker undercarriage leg and
wheel-pants fairing.
2. Improved wingtips with internally
mounted navigation lights.
3. Improved cowling promoting more
efficient air movement within.
4. Draggy wire antennae on the vertical fin replaced
with flat plate antennae aligned with the airflow.
5. Sleeker cockpit entry steps on the
main undercarriage legs.
Also, the 230-horsepower Lycoming IO-540 has been de-rated to operate at 2,400 rpm max. which will surely tend to increase the practical TBO (time between over­haul) and reduce maintenance costs. The “S” model’s three-blade McCauley prop with curved leading and trailing edges is standard equipment on the “T’.
Over the years pilot ergonomics has not been ignored by Cessna. In the 182’s cockpit everything is where you might expect it to be and all controls, switches and buttons fall nicely to hand. Flap, gear and trim controls feel like what they control, and operate intuitively. However, the optional electric elevator trim button on the pilot’s control yoke is highly recommended being that the 182’s high wing and generous quotient of power on a thrust line some distance below it makes this aeroplane want trim and plenty of it upon every change of power and/or airspeed. While the C-182T has a 24 volt electrical system, in keeping up with the times for the pilot’s and passengers’ convenience, for the first time there is now a 12 volt outlet plug for an out­board electrical device such as a GPS, laptop, IPad, or whatever.
PERFORMANCE COMPARISON
Cessna 182S
SKYLANE
Engine
Horsepower 230 230 235
Top Speed 146 KTS. 150 KTS. 148 KTS.
Cruise speed 142 KTS. 145 KTS. 143 KTS.
Stall Speed (full flaps) 49 KTS. 49 KTS. 56 KTS.
Ground Roll 805 . 795 . 795 .
Over 50  obstacle 1,515 . 1,514 . 1,216 .
Rate Of Climb 865 fpm 924 fpm 1,010 fpm.
Ceiling 14,900 . 18,100 . 18,100 .
Gross Weight 3,100 lbs. 3,100 lbs. 3,000 lbs.
Empty Weight 1,775 lbs. 1,897 lbs. 1,608 lbs.
Useful load 1,213 lbs. 1,382 lbs.
Fuel Capacity 92 gal. 88 gal. 72 gal.
Range 817 nm. 968 nm. 650 nm.
Ground Roll 590 . 590 . 825 .
Over 50  obstacle 1,350 . 1,350 . 1,725 .
Lycoming
IO-540-AB1A5
Takeo
Landing
Cessna 182T
SKYLANE
Lycoming
IO-540-AB1A5
PIPER 235
DAKOTA
Lycoming
O-540-J3A5D
LIKE AN OLD, COMFORTABLE PAIR OF SHOES
From its inception the Cessna 182 filled a need in the GA industry that it still fills, and with distinction. Steadily evolving since its introduction 1955 it has never strayed far from its original incarnation. If a pilot who flew the very first C-182 were to fly the latest model, he or she would still find the cockpit to be a familiar environment; and with the exception, perhaps, of the flap control, originally manual and now electric, everything would still essentially be where it always had been and operate as it always did. He or she would find it just as satisfying to fly as it always has been, like putting on an old, comfortable pair of shoes; and that quality, in the end, may be the Cessna 182’s greatest achievement.
The Cessna 182 flies and operates like a basic, simple aeroplane that any low-time Private Pilot could easily check out in within an hour or two at most, while it constantly delivers the high performance of a more complex and demanding aeroplane. No doubt, as time passes, continuing improvements will be made to the venerable Cessna 182 that will surely enhance it in many ways. But the basic aeroplane, that master of virtually all aeronautic trades, will remain a familiar old friend and perhaps the greatest of all GA aeroplanes.
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DESIGNER’S NOTES
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HE 182 TO ME, MEANS BUSINESS.
It’s large, comfortable, and tough.
T
Upon first entering the cabin, you are greeted with an expansive, wide, and especially long interior. My initial thought was, “wow, four people would be very comfortable in here, even for long cross country flights.” The rear baggage is also easily accessible just behind the rear seat, making the entire lengthy interior accessible in flight.
If you are familiar with it’s smaller brother, the Skyhawk, your eyes should catch some additional gauges including a CHT (cylinder head temp), a large fuel gallons per hour gauge, manifold pressure, a blue prop handle, a cowl flaps lever, and rudder trim. And in general, the panel is wider and more expansive.
If you are like me, when you first step into a cockpit, you will grab the yoke or stick to get a feel for the controls and linkage. When I first pulled back on the yoke in the Skylane, I thought “who put sand bags on the elevator?” It’s that heavy, and by my own measure­ments, a Skyhawk requires 6 lbs to li the elevator while the Skylane requires a whopping 25lbs. Having spoken with several 182 owners and pilots, this heavy elevator is a “love – hate” relationship, with most loving it.
Starting the powerful Lycoming 540 engine, you are greeted by a throaty exhaust note. This plane sounds mean. However, when you start to taxi, it reminds me of an old 1970’s American car power steering. While the rudders feel just as light as a feather, you’re aware that these delicate forces are moving a large and powerful vehicle.
At takeo, a 3-bladed prop has a distinctly strong pull o the line and reaches 60 mph almost twice as fast as the Skyhawk or Cherokee. As soon as you li o into a climb, you will see climb rates between 1,000-2,000  / min. And being a high performance airplane, aer takeo you will want to pull the throttle back to 23” of manifold pressure, which is about 2/3rds throttle. As you climb higher into thinner air, you can slowly increase the throttle to maintain 23”. If you are planning for a higher altitude cruise, you are in for a treat because with it’s high li wing, drooping wing tips, and 541 cu engine, it will continue to climb strong right to your desired height.
Once you settle, and begin trimming for cruise, you will see a nice increase of 15-20 KTS over the smaller GA planes and the entire time you will also enjoy a smoother ride from the higher wing loading.
Being a high wing airplane with power, any signifi­cant power or speed changes will require a strong pull or push on the yoke until you adjust trim. This can get especially heavy on final, if you don’t dial in enough nose up trim. To quote Dudley Henriques, “If someone told me they just bought a 182, my first question
When you start to slow down for your approach, you need to be mindful of the trim at all times. Because if you don’t have enough trim dialed in as you cross the threshold, you may not be able to flare this properly. This is not an airplane you fly with a thumb and finger; you fly and especially land a Skylane with a tightly clenched fist and a strong fore arm.
However, once in the flare (assuming you have it properly trimmed), the heavy elevator really counters any instinct to over flare. I find the Skylane to be one of the easiest planes to land (again, if properly trimmed) as the wing continues to fly well even at high angles of attack. If you don’t have it trimmed properly, however, you will be in for a hard touchdown.
When you do finally touch down, the feel of the wheels digging into the pavement tells you just how tough this bird’s landing gear is. Even if you did land it very hard, the feeling is this plane could take a lot more. The large tires dig into the pavement, and the gear flexes beautifully. This is no doubt a plane originally designed for some very tough terrain.
Once you have slowed down and exit the runway, the feather light taxi forces feel as if someone laid a red carpet out for you aer your flight. It’s just the easiest, most pleasurable airplane to taxi. I cannot imagine improving on this aspect.
No question, the Cessna 182 Skylane is an airplane that can do everything you ask it too, and I can see how owners can become quite attached and loyal to their Skylane. It’s also no surprise why the Skylane is the world’s most produced high performance general aviation airplane of all time. I hope you enjoy your Accu-Sim Skylane, as we have certainly enjoyed making (and flying) it.
THE AIR TO AIR SIMULATIONS TEAM
would be “does it have electric trim?” if not, I would recommend they stop what they are doing and get one installed immediately.”
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FEATURES
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 A true propeller simulation.
 Interactive pre-flight inspection system.
 Gorgeously constructed aircra, inside
and out, down to the last rivet.
 Physics-driven sound environment.
 Persistent airplane even when the
computer is o.
 Four naturally animated passengers that
can sit in any seat.
 3D Lights ‘M’ (built directly into the
model).
 Complete maintenance hangar internal
systems and detailed engine tests including compression checks.
 Visual Real-Time Load Manager.
 Piston combustion engine modeling.Air
comes in, it mixes with fuel and ignites, parts move, heat up, and all work in harmony to produce the wonderful sound of a Lycoming 540 engine. Now the gauges look beneath the skin of your aircra and show you what Accu-Sim is all about.
 Authentic Bendix King Avionics stack
including the KMA 26 Audio Panel, two KX 155A NAV/COMMS, KR 87 ADF, KT 76C Transponder, KN 62A DME, and KAP 140 Two Axis Autopilot with altitude pre­selection. Optional KI 525 HSI.
 Three in-sim avionics configurations
including no GPS, GPS 295, or the GNS
400. Built-in, automatic support for 3rd party GNS 430 and 530, GTN 650 and 750.
 Pure3D Instrumentation.
 In cockpit pilot’s map.
 Authentic fuel delivery includes priming
and proper mixture behavior. Mixture can be tuned by the book using the EGT or by ear. It’s your choice.
 A2A specialized materials with authentic
metals, plastics, and rubber.
 Oil pressure system is aected by oil
viscosity (oil thickness). Oil viscosity is aected by oil temperature. Now when you start the engine, you need to be careful to give the engine time to warm.
 Eight commercial aviation sponsors have
supported the project including Phillips 66 Aviation, Champion Aerospace, and Knots2u speed modifications.
 And much more …
 Electric starter with accurate cranking
power.
 Dynamic ground physics including both
hard pavement and so grass modeling.
 Primer-only starts.
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QUICK START GUIDE
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HANCES ARE, IF YOU ARE
reading this manual, you
C
have properly installed the A2A Accu-Sim C182 Skylane. However, in the interest of customer support, here is a brief description of the setup process, system requirements, and a quick start guide to get you up quickly and eiciently in your new aircra.
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
The A2A Simulations Accu-Sim C182 Skylane requires the following to run:
▶ Requires licensed copy of
Lockheed Martin Prepar3D
OPERATING SYSTEM:
▶ Windows XP SP2 ▶ Windows Vista ▶ Windows 7
PROCESSOR:
2.0 GHz single core processor (3.0GHz and/or multiple core processor or better recommended)
HARD DRIVE:
250MB of hard drive space or better
VIDEO CARD:
DirectX 9 compliant video card with at least 128 MB video ram (512 MB or more recommended)
OTHER:
DirectX 9 hardware compatibility and audio card with speakers and/or headphones
INSTALLATI ON
Included in your downloaded zipped (.zip) file, which you should have been given a link to download aer pur­chase, is an executable (.exe) file which, when accessed, contains the automatic installer for the soware.
To install, double click on the executable and follow the steps provided in the installer soware. Once com­plete, you will be prompted that installation is finished.
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CHAPTER NAME
IMPORTANT: If you have Microso Security Essentials installed, be sure to make an exception for Lockheed Martin Prepar3D as shown right.
REALISM SETTINGS
The A2A Simulations Accu-Sim C182 Skylane was built to a very high degree of realism and accuracy. Because of this, it was developed using the highest real­ism settings available in Lockheed Martin Prepar3D.
The following settings are recommended to provide the most accurate depiction of the flight model. Without these settings, certain features may not work correctly and the flight model will not perform accurately. The figure below depicts the recommended realism settings for the A2A Accu­Sim C182 Skylane.
FLIGHT MODEL
To achieve the highest degree of realism, move all sliders to the right. The model was developed in this manner, thus we cannot attest to the accuracy of the model if these sliders are not set as shown above. The only exception would be “Crash tolerance.”
INSTRUMENTS AND LIGHTS
Enable “Pilot controls aircra lights” as the name implies for proper control of lighting. Check “Enable gyro dri” to provide realistic inaccuracies which occur in gyro compasses over time.
“Display indicated airspeed” should be checked to provide a more realistic simulation of the airspeed instruments.
ENGINES
Ensure “Enable auto mixture” is NOT checked. The C182 has a fully working mixture control and this will interfere with our extensively documented and modeled mixture system.
FLIGHT CONTROLS
It is recommended you have
“Auto-rudder” turned o if you have a means of controlling the rudder input, either via side swivel/twist on your specific joystick or rudder pedals.
ENGINE STRESS DAMAGES ENGINE
(Acceleration Only). It is recommended you have this UNCHECKED.
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QUICK FLYING TIPS
 To Change Views Press A or SHIFT + A.
 Keep the engine at or above 800 RPM. Failure to do
so may cause spark plug fouling. If your plugs do foul (the engine will sound rough), try running the engine at a higher RPM. You have a good chance of blowing them clear within a few seconds by doing so. If that doesn’t work, you may have to shut down and visit the maintenance hangar.
 Reduce power aer takeo. This is standard procedure
with high performance aircra.
 On landing, raise your flaps once you touch down to
settle the aircra, pull back on the stick for additional elevator braking while you use your wheel brakes.
 Be careful with high-speed dives, as you can lose
control of your aircra if you exceed the max allowable speed.
 For landings, take the time to line up and plan your
approach. Keep your eye on the speed at all times.
 Using in-sim accelerated time may cause
odd system behavior.
 Keep throttle above  when flying at high RPM to avoid
fouling plugs.
 A quick way to warm your engines is to use auto start
(CTRL-E) or re-load your aircra while running.
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ACCU-SIM AND THE COMBUSTION ENGINE
The piston pulls in the fuel / air mixture, then compresses the mixture on its way back up.
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The spark plug ignites the compressed air / fuel mixture, driving the piston down (power), then on it’s way back up, the burned mixture is forced out the exhaust.
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HE COMBUSTION ENGINE IS BASICALLY AN AIR PUMP. IT CREATES
power by pulling in an air / fuel mixture, igniting it, and turning the
T
explosion into usable power. The explosion pushes a piston down that turns a cranksha. As the pistons run up and down with controlled explosions, the cranksha spins. For an automobile, the spinning cranksha is connected to a transmission (with gears) that is connected to a drivesha, which is then connected to the wheels. This is literally
“putting power to the pavement.” For an aircra, the cranksha is
connected to a propeller sha and the power comes when that spinning propeller takes a bite of the air and pulls the aircra forward.
The main dierence between an engine designed for an automobile and one designed for an aircra is the aircra engine will have to produce power up high where the air is thin. To function better in that high, thin air, a supercharger can be installed to push more air into the engine.
OVERVIEW OF HOW THE ENGINE WORKS AND CREATES POWER
Fire needs air. We need air. Engines need air. Engines are just like us as – they need oxygen to work. Why? Because fire needs oxygen to burn. If you cover a fire, it goes out because you starved it of oxygen. If you have
ever used a wood stove or fireplace, you know when you open the vent to allow more air to come in, the fire will burn more. The same principle applies to an engine. Think of an engine like a fire that will burn as hot and fast as you let it.
Look at these four images on the le and you will
understand basically how an engine operates.
The piston pulls in the fuel / air mixture, then
compresses the mixture on its way back up.
The spark plug ignites the compressed air / fuel mixture, driving the piston down (power), then on it’s way back up, the burned mixture is forced out the exhaust.
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ACCU-SIM AND THE COMBUSTION ENGINE
AIR TEMPERATURE
Have you ever noticed that your car engine runs smoother and stronger in the cold weather? This is because cold air is denser than hot air and has more oxygen. Hotter air means less power.
Cold air is denser and so provides more
WEAK
oxygen to your engine. More oxygen means more power.
STRONG
MIXTURE
Just before the air enters the combustion chamber it is mixed with fuel. Think of it as an air / fuel mist.
A general rule is a 0.08% fuel to air ratio will produce the most power. 0.08% is less than 1%, meaning for every 100 parts of air, there is just less than 1 part fuel. The best economical mixture is 0.0625%.
Why not just use the most economical mixture all the time?
Because a leaner mixture means a hotter running engine. Fuel actually acts as an engine coolant, so the richer the mixture, the cooler the engine will run.
However, since the engine at high power will be nearing its maximum acceptable temperature, you would use your best power mixture (0.08%) when you need power (takeo, climbing), and your best economy mixture (.0625%) when throttled back in a cruise when engine temperatures are low.
So, think of it this way:
▶ For HIGH POWER, use a RICHER mixture. ▶ For LOW POWER, use a LEANER mixture.
THE MIXTURE LEVER
Most piston aircra have a mixture lever in the cockpit that the pilot can operate. The higher you fly, the thinner the air, and the less fuel you need to achieve the same mixture. So, in general, as you climb you will be gradually pulling that mixture lever backwards, leaning it out as you go to the higher, thinner air.
How do you know when you have the right mixture?
The standard technique to achieve the proper mixture in flight is to lean the mixture until you just notice the engine getting a bit weaker, then richen the mixture until the engine sounds smooth. It is this threshold that you are dialing into your 0.08%, best power mixture. Be aware, if you pull the mixture all the way back to the leanest posi tion, this is mixture cuto, which will stop the engine.
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Just before the air enters the combustion chamber it is mixed with fuel. Think of it as an air / fuel mist. When you push the throttle forward, you are opening a valve allowing your engine to suck in more fuel / air mixture.
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INDUCTION
As you now know, an engine is an air pump that runs based on timed explosions. Just like a forest fire, it would run out of control unless it is limited. When you push the throttle forward, you are opening a valve allowing your engine to suck in more fuel / air mixture. When at full throttle, your engine is pulling in as much air as your intake system will allow. It is not unlike a watering hose – you crimp the hose and restrict the water. Think of full power as you just opening that water valve and letting the water run free. This is 100% full power.
In general, we don’t run an airplane engine at full power for extended periods of time. Full power is only used when it is absolutely necessary, sometimes on takeo, and otherwise in an emergency situation that requires it. For the most part, you will be ‘throttling’ your motor, meaning you will be be setting the limit.
MANIFOLD PRESSURE = AIR PRESSURE
You have probably watched the weather on television and seen a large letter L showing where big storms are located. L stands for LOW BAROMETRIC PRESSURE (low air pressure). You’ve seen the H as well, which stands for HIGH BAROMETRIC PRESSURE (high air pressure). While air pressure changes all over the world based on weather conditions, these air pressure changes are minor compared to the dierence in air pressure with altitude. The higher the altitude, the much lower the air pressure.
On a standard day (59°F), the air pressure at sea level is 29.92 in. Hg BAROMETRIC PRESSURE. To keep things simple, let’s say 30 in. Hg is standard air pres­sure. You have just taken o and begin to climb. As you reach higher altitudes, you notice your rate of climb slowly getting lower. This is because the higher you fly, the thinner the air is, and the less power your engine can produce. You should also notice your MANIFOLD PRESSURE decreases as you climb as well.
Why does your manifold pressure decrease as you climb?
Because manifold pressure is air pressure, only it’s measured inside your engine’s intake manifold. Since your engine needs air to breath, manifold pressure is a good indicator of how much power your engine can produce.
Now, if you start the engine and idle, why does the manifold pressure go way down?
When your engine idles, it is being choked of air. It is given just enough air to sustain itself without stalling. If you could look down your carburetor throat when an engine is idling, those throttle plates would look like they were closed. However if you looked at it really closely, you would notice a little space on the edge of the throttle
valve. Through that little crack, air is streaming in. If you turned your ear toward it, you could probably even hear a loud sucking sound. That is how much that engine is trying to breath. Those throttle valves are located at the base of your carburetor, and your carburetor is bolted on top of your intake manifold. Just below those throttle valves and inside your intake manifold, the air is in a near vacuum. This is where your manifold pressure gauge’s sensor is, and when you are idling, that sensor is reading that very low air pressure in that near vacuum.
As you increase power, you will notice your manifold pressure comes up. This is simply because you have used your throttle to open those throttle plates more, and the engine is able to get the air it wants. If you apply full power on a normal engine, that pressure will ultimately reach about the same pressure as the outside, which really just means the air is now equal
­ized as your engine’s intake system is running wide open. So if you turned your engine o, your manifold pressure would rise to the outside pressure. So on a standard day at sea level, your manifold pressure with the engine o will be 30”.
IGNITION
The ignition system provides timed sparks to trig­ger timed explosions. For safety, aircra are usually equipped with two completely independent ignition systems. In the event one fails, the other will continue to provide sparks and the engine will continue to run. This means each cylinder will have two spark plugs installed.
An added advantage to having two sparks instead of one is more sparks means a little more power. The pilot can select Ignition 1, Ignition 2, or BOTH by using the MAG switch. You can test that each ignition is working on the ground by selecting each one and watching your engine RPM. There will be a slight drop when you go from BOTH to just one ignition system. This is normal, provided the drop is within your pilot’s manual limitation.
The air and fuel are compress by the piston, then the ignition system adds the spark to create a controlled explosion.
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ACCU-SIM AND THE COMBUSTION ENGINE
ENGINE TEMPERATURE
All sorts of things create heat in an engine, like fric­tion, air temp, etc., but nothing produces heat like COMBUSTION. The hotter the metal, the weaker its strength.
Aircra engines are made of aluminum alloy, due to its strong but lightweight properties. Aluminum maintains most of its strength up to about 150°C. As the temperature approaches 200°C, the strength starts to drop. An aluminum rod at 0°C is about 5× stronger than the same rod at 250°C, so an engine is most prone to fail when it is running hot. Keep your engine temperatures down to keep a healthy running engine.
LUBRICATION SYSTEM (OIL)
An internal combustion engine has precision machined metal parts that are designed to run against other metal surfaces. There needs to be a layer of oil between those surfaces at all times. If you were to run an engine and pull the oil plug and let all the oil drain out, aer just minutes, the engine would run hot, slow down, and ultimately seize up completely from the metal on metal friction.
There is a minimum amount of oil pressure required for every engine to run safely. If the oil pressure falls below this minimum, then the engine parts are in danger of making contact with each other and incurring damage. A trained pilot quickly learns to look at his oil pressure gauge as soon as the engine starts, because if the oil pressure does not rise within seconds, then the engine must be shut down immediately.
Without the layer of oil between the parts, an engine will quickly overheat and seize.
Above is a simple illustration of a cranksha that is located between two metal caps, bolted together. This is the very cranksha where all of the engine’s power ends up. Vital oil is pressure-injected in between these surfaces when the engine is running. The only time the cranksha ever physically touches these metal caps is at startup and shutdown. The moment oil pressure drops below its minimum, these surfaces make contact. The cranksha is where all the power comes from, so if you starve this vital component of oil, the engine can seize. However, this is just one of hundreds of moving parts in an engine that need a constant supply of oil to run properly.
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MORE CYLINDERS, MORE POWER
The very first combustion engines were just one or two cylinders. Then, as technology advanced, and the demand for more power increased, cylinders were made larger. Ultimately, they were not only made larger, but more were added to an engine.
Below are some illustrations to show how an engine may be configured as more cylinders are added.
The more cylinders you add to an engine, the more heat it produces. Eventually, engine manufactur­ers started to add additional “rows” of cylinders. Sometimes two engines would literally be mated together, with the 2nd row being rotated slightly so the cylinders could get a direct flow of air.
THE PRATT & WHITNEY R4360
Pratt & Whitney took this even further, creating the R4360, with 28 Cylinders (this engine is featured in the A2A Boeing 377 Stratocruiser). The cylinders were run so deep, it became known as the “Corn Cob.” This is the most powerful piston aircra engine to reach produc­tion. There are a LOT of moving parts on this engine.
TORQUE VS HORSEPOWER
Torque is a measure of twisting force. If you put a foot long wrench on a bolt, and applied 1 pound of force at the handle, you would be applying 1 foot-pound of torque to that bolt. The moment a spark triggers an explosion, and that piston is driven down, that is the moment that piston is creating torque, and using that torque to twist the cranksha. With a more powerful explosion, comes more torque. The more fuel and air that can be exploded, the more torque. You can increase an engine’s power by either
making bigger cylinders, adding more cylinders, or both.
Horsepower, on the other hand, is the total power that engine is creating. Horsepower is calculated by combin ing torque with speed (RPM). If an engine can produce 500 foot pounds of torque at 1,000 RPM and produce the same amount of torque at 2,000 RPM, then that engine is producing twice the horsepower at 2,000 RPM than it is at 1,000 RPM. Torque is the twisting force. Horsepower is how fast that twisting force is being applied.
If your airplane has a torque meter, keep that engine torque within the limits or you can break internal com­ponents. Typically, an engine produces the most torque in the low to mid RPM range, and highest horsepower in the upper RPM range.
-
The “Corn Cob,” the most powerful piston aircraft engine to reach production.
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SPECIFICATIONS
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PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS
Speeds
Note that high speed figures are with wheel fairings. Subtract 2 KIAS when removed.
Maximum at Sea Level: 150 ktas Cruise, 80% Power at 7000 : 145 ktas
Range
Recommended lean mixture with fuel allowance for engine start, taxi, takeo, climb and 45 minutes reserve.
80% Power @ 7000  (max): 773 nm / 5.4 hrs 55% Power @ 10000  (econ): Range 930 nm / 7.6 hrs
Rate Of Climb At Sea Level
924 fpm
Service Ceiling
18,100 
Takeo
Ground Roll: 795  Total Distance Over 50  Obstacle: 1514 
Landing
Ground Roll: 590  Total Distance Over 50  Obstacle: 1350 
Stall Speed
Flaps Up, Power O: 54 kcas Flaps Down, Power O: 49 kcas
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SPECIFICATIONS
GENERAL
Engine
Textron Lycoming, IO-540-AB1A5, Normally aspirated, direct drive, air-cooled, horizontally opposed, fuel injected, six cylinder engine with 541 cu. in. displacement.
Horsepower Rating and Engine Speed: 230 rated BHP at 2,400 RPM.
Propeller
Three blade, constant speed, 79” 14.9° to 31.7° pitch McCauley, Model Number B3D36C431/80VSA-1.
Fuel
Total Capacity: 92.0 U.S. gallons. Total Usable: 87.0 U.S. gallons. Total Capacity Each Tank: 46.0 U.S. gallons. Total Usable Each Tank: 43.5 U.S. gallons. Specified Octane: 100LL Grade Aviation Fuel
Oil Capacity
Sump Oil Capacity: 8 U.S. Quarts Total Oil Capacity: 9 U.S. Quarts
Recommended Oil Viscosity for Temperature Range:
Temperature SAE Grade
Above 16°C (60°F) 50 (w100)
-18°C (0°F) to 32°C (90°F) 20W-50 All Temperatures 15W-50
NOTE: The oil viscosity listed in the manual are slightly dierent than in the simulation because they are each referencing a dierent name brand of aviation oil.
Max Weights
Max Takeo Weight: 3100 lbs. Max Baggage Area Weight: 200lbs Max Ramp Weight: 3110 lbs Max Landing Weight: 2950 lbs
Standard Airplane Weights
Standard Empty Weight: 1918 lbs. Maximum Useful Load (total fuel, passengers, and baggage): 1192 lbs
Limitations
VNE (Never Exceed) Do not exceed 175 KIAS in any speed operation.
VNO (Maximum Structural) Do not exceed 140 KIAS except in smooth air, and then only with caution.
VA (Maneuvering Speed) Do not make full or abrupt control movements above this speed.
3,100 Pounds: 110 KIAS 2,600 Pounds: 101 KIAS 2,100 Pounds: 91 KIAS
VFE (Maximum Flap Speed)
Do not exceed this speed with flaps
10° Flaps: 140 KIAS 10° to 20° Flaps: 120 KIAS 20° to 30° Flaps: 100 KIAS
Airspeed Indicator Markings
White Arc (flaps extended) Full Flap Operating Range (41 – 100 KIAS) Green Arc (flaps retracted) Normal Operating Range (51 – 140 KIAS) Yellow Arc Operations must be conducted with caution and only in smooth air (140-175 KIAS) Red Line Maximum speed for all operations is 175 KIAS
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Powerplant Limitations
Maximum Engine Speed: 2400 RPM Maximum Cylinder Head Temperature: 500° F (260° C) Maximum Oil Temperature: 245°F (118°C) Oil Pressure Minimum: 20 PSI Oil Pressure Maximum: 115 PSI
Center Of Gravity Limits
NORMAL CATEGORY Center of Gravity Range: Forward: 33.0 inches a of
datum at 2250 pounds or less, with straight line variation to 35.5 inches a of datum at 2700 pounds or less, with straight line variation to 40.9 inches a of datum at 3100 pounds, continuing to a limit at 3100 pounds.
A: 46.0 inches a of datum at all weights. Reference Datum: Lower portion of front face of firewall.
NORMAL OPERATIONS
Airspeeds For Normal Operation
Unless otherwise noted, the following speeds are based on a maximum weight of 3100 pounds and may be used for any lesser weight.
Takeo
Normal Climb: 70-80 KIAS Short Field Takeo, Flaps 20°, Speed at 50 Feet: 58 KIAS
Enroute Climb, Flaps Up
Normal, Sea Level: 85-95 KIAS Best Rate-of-Climb, Sea Level: 80 KIAS Best Rate-of-Climb, 10,000 Feet: 74 KIAS Best Angle-of-Climb, Sea Level: 65 KIAS Best Angle-of-Climb, 10,000 Feet: 68 KIAS
Maneuver Limits
This airplane is certificated in the normal categor y. The normal category is applicable to aircra intended for non aerobatic operations. These include any maneuvers incidental to normal flying, stalls (except whip stalls), lazy eights, chandelles, and turns in which the angle of bank is not more than 60°. Aerobatic maneuvers, including spins, are not approved.
Flight Load Factor Limits
Flight Load Factors (Maximum Takeo Weight - 3100 lbs.):
*Flaps Up: +3.8g, -1.52g *Flaps FULL: +2.0g
*The design load factors are 150% of the above, and in all cases, the structure meets or exceeds design loads.
Landing Approach
Normal Approach, Flaps Up: 70-80 KIAS Normal Approach, Flaps FULL: 60-70 KIAS Short Field Approach, Flaps FULL: 60 KIAS
Balked Landing
Maximum Power, Flaps 20°: 55 KIAS
Maximum Recommended Turbulent Air Penetration Speed
3100 lbs: 110 KIAS 2600 lbs: 101 KIAS 2100 lbs: 91 KIAS
Maximum Demonstrated Crosswind Velocity
Takeo or Landing: 15 KTS
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CHECKLISTS
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CABIN
1. Pitot Tube Cover — REMOVE. Check for pitot blockage.
2. Pilot’s Operating Handbook — ACCESSIBLE TO PILOT.
3. Airplane Weight and Balance — CHECKED.
4. Parking Brake — SET.
5. Control Wheel Lock — REMOVE.
6. Ignition Switch — OFF.
7. Avionics Master Switch — OFF.
WARNING: When turning on the master switch, using an external power source, or pulling the propeller through by hand, treat the propeller as if the ignition switch were on. Do not stand, nor allow anyone else to stand, within the arc of the propeller, since a loose or broken wire or a component malfunction could cause the propeller to rotate.
8. Master Switch — ON.
9. Fuel Quantity Indicators — CHECK QUANTITY
and ENSURE LOW FUEL ANNUNCIATORS (L LOW FUEL R) ARE EXTINGUISHED.
10. Avionics Master Switch — ON.
11. Avionics Cooling Fan — CHECK AUDIBLY FOR OPERATION.
12. Avionics Master Switch — O FF.
13. Static Pressure Alternate Source Valve — O FF.
14. Annunciator Panel Switch — PLACE AND HOLD IN
TST POSITION and ensure all annunciators illuminate.
NOTE: When Master Switch is turned ON, some annunciators will flash for approximately 10 seconds before illuminating steadily. When panel TST switch is toggled up and held in position, all remaining lights will flash until the switch is released.
15. Fuel Selector Valve — BOTH.
16. Flaps — EXTEND.
17. Pitot Heat — ON. (Carefully check that pitot tube
is warm to the touch within 30 seconds.)
18. Stall Warning System — CHECK (gently
move the stall vane upward and verify that the stall warning horn is heard)
19. Pitot Heat — OFF.
20. Master Switch — OFF.
21. Trim Controls — Neutral.
22. Baggage Door — CHECK, lock with key.
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CHECKLISTS
BEFORE STARTING ENGINE
1. Preflight Inspection — COMPLETE.
2. Passenger Briefing — COMPLETE.
3. Seats and Seat Belts — ADJUST and
LOCK. Ensure inertia reel locking.
4. Brakes — TEST and SET.
5. Circuit Breakers — CHECK IN.
6. Electrical Equipment — OFF.
NOTE: The avionics master switch must be o during engine start to prevent possible damage to avionics.
7. Avionics Master Switch — OFF.
8. Cowl Flaps — OPEN
9. Fuel Selector Valve — BOTH.
10. Avionics Circuit Breakers — CHECK IN.
STARTING ENGINE (WITH BATTERY)
1. Throttle — OPEN  INCH.
2. Propeller — HIGH RPM
3. Mixture — IDLE CUTOFF.
4. Propeller Area — CLEAR.
5. Master Switch — ON.
6. Flashing Beacon — ON.
NOTE: If engine is warm, omit priming procedure of steps 7, 8, and 9 below.
7. Auxiliary Fuel Pump Switch — ON.
8. Mixture — SET to FULL RICH (full
forward) until stable fuel flow is indicated (usually 3 to 5 seconds), then set to IDLE CUTOFF (full a) position.
9. Auxiliary Fuel Pump — OFF.
10. Ignition Switch — START
(release when engine starts).
11. Mixture — ADVANCE smoothly
to RICH when engine starts.
NOTE: If engine floods (engine has been primed too much), turn o auxiliary fuel pump, set mixture to idle cuto, open throttle  to full, and motor (crank) engine. When engine starts, set mixture to full rich and close throttle promptly.
12. Oil Pressure — CHECK.
13. Ammeter — CHECK (charging)
14. Navigation Lights — ON as required.
15. Taxi and Landing Light
Switches — ON as required
16. Avionics Master Switch — ON.
17. Radios — ON.
18. Flaps — RE TR ACT.
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BEFORE TAKEOFF
NORMAL TAKEOFF
1. Parking Brake — SET.
2. Passenger Seat Backs — MOST
UPRIGHT POSITION.
3. Seats and Seat Belts — CHECK SECURE.
4. Cabin Doors — CLOSED and LOCKED.
5. Flight Controls — FREE and CORRECT.
6. Flight Instruments — CHECK and SET.
7. Fuel Quantity — CHECK.
8. Mixture — RICH.
9. Fuel Selector Valve — RECHECK BOTH.
10. Elevator and Rudder Trim
SET for takeo
11. Throttle — 1800 RPM.
a. Magnetos — CHECK (RPM drop
should not exceed 175 RPM on either magneto or 50 RPM dierential between magnetos).
b. Propeller Control — CYCLE
(from high to low RPM; return to high RPM) (push full in)
c. Vacuum Gage — CHECK.
d. Engine Instruments and
Ammeter — CHECK.
12. Annunciator Panel — Ensure no
annunciators are illuminated.
13. Throttle — CHECK IDLE.
14. Throttle — 1000 RPM or LESS.
15. Throttle Friction Lock — A DJUST.
16. Strobe Lights — AS DESIRED.
17. Radios and Avionics — SET.
18. NAV/GPS Switch (if installed) — SET.
19. Autopilot (if installed) — OFF.
20. Cabin Windows — CLOSED
and LOCKED.
21. Wing Flaps — SET for takeo (0°-20°)
22. Cowl Flaps — OPEN
23. Brakes — RELEASE
1. Wing Flaps — 0°-20°.
2. Power — FULL THROTTLE
and 2400 RPM.
3. Mixture — RICH (above 5000
feet pressure altitude, lean for maximum RPM)
4. Elevator Control — LIFT NOSE
WHEEL (at 50-60 KIAS).
5. Climb Speed — 70 KIAS (flaps
20°) or 80 KIAS (flaps 0°)
6. Wing Flaps — R ETRACT.
SHORT FIELD TAKEOFF
1. Wing Flaps — 20°.
2. Brakes — APPLY.
3. Power — FULL THROTTLE
and 2400 RPM.
4. Mixture — L RICH (above
5000 feet pressure altitude, lean for maximum RPM)
5. Brakes — RELEASE.
6. Elevator Control — MAINTAIN
SLIGHTLY TAIL LOW ATTITUDE.
7. Climb Speed — 60 KIAS (until
all obstacles are cleared).
8. Wing Flaps — RETRACT slowly
aer reaching 70 KIAS.
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CHECKLISTS
ENROUTE CLIMB
1. Airspeed — 85-95 KIAS.
2. Power — 23 in. Hg or FULL THROTTLE
(whichever is less) and 2400 RPM.
3. Mixture — 15 GPH or FULL
RICH (whichever is less)
4. Fuel Selector Valve — BOTH
5. Cowl Flaps — OPEN AS REQUIRED
CRUISE
1. Power — 15-23 in. Hg, 2000-2400
RPM (no more than 80%).
2. Elevator and Rudder Trim — ADJUS T.
3. Mixture — LEAN.
4. Cowl Flaps — CLOSED
DESCENT
BEFORE LANDING
1. Pilot and Passenger Seat Backs
MOST UPRIGHT POSITION.
2. Seats and Seat Belts —
SECURED and LOCKED.
3. Fuel Selector Valve — BOTH.
4. Mixture — RICH.
5. Propeller — HIGH RPM
6. Landing/Taxi Lights — ON.
7. Autopilot — O FF.
NORMAL LANDING
1. Airspeed — 70-80 KIAS (flaps UP).
2. Wing Flaps — AS DESIRED (0°-10°
below 140 KIAS, 10°-20° below 120 KIAS, FULL below 100 KIAS).
3. Airspeed — 60 KIAS (Flaps FULL).
4. Trim — ADJUST
5. Touchdown — MAIN WHEELS FIRST.
6. Landing Roll — LOWER
NOSE WHEEL GENTLY.
7. Braking — MINIMUM REQUIRED.
1. Power — AS DESIRED.
2. Mixture — ENRICHEN as required.
3. Cowl Flaps — CLOSED
4. Altimeter — SET.
5. NAV/GPS Switch — SE T.
6. Fuel Selector Valve — BOTH.
7. Wing Flaps — AS DESIRED (0°-10°
below 140 KIAS, 10°-20° below 120 KIAS, FULL below 100 KIAS).
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SHORT FIELD LANDING
AFTER LANDING
1. Airspeed — 70-80 KIAS (flaps UP).
2. Wing Flaps — FULL (below 100 KIAS).
3. Airspeed — 60 KIAS (until flare).
4. Trim — ADJUST
5. Touchdown — MAIN WHEELS FIRST.
6. Brakes — APPLY HEAVILY.
7. Wing Flaps — RETRACT for
maximum brake eectiveness.
BALKED LANDING
1. Throttle — FULL OPEN and 2400RPM
2. Wing Flaps — RETRACT TO 20°.
3. Climb Speed — 55 KIAS.
4. Wing Flaps — 10° (until obstacles
are cleared). Retract (aer reaching
a safe altitude and 70 KIAS).
1. Wing Flaps — U P.
2. Cowl Flaps — OPEN
SECURING AIRPLANE
1. Parking Brake — SET.
2. Throttle — IDLE
3. Electrical Equipment,
Autopilot — O FF.
4. Avionics Master Switch — OFF.
5. Mixture — IDLE CUT OFF
(pulled full out).
6. Ignition Switch — OFF.
7. Master Switch — O FF.
8. Control Lock — INSTALL.
9. Fuel Selector Valve — LEFT or
RIGHT to prevent cross feeding.
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PROCEDURES EXPLAINED
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STARTING ENGINE
When the engine starts, smoothly advance the mixture control to full rich and retard the throttle to desired idle speed. If the engine is under primed (most likely in cold weather with a cold engine) it will not start at all, and additional priming will be necessary. Aer starting, if the oil pressure gauge does not begin to indicate pressure within 30 seconds in the summer time and approximately one minute in very cold weather, stop the engine and investigate. Lack of oil pressure can cause serious engine damage.
NOTE: Additional details concerning cold weather starting and operation may be found under COLD WEATHER OPERATION paragraphs in this section.
RECOMMENDED STARTER DUTY CYCLE
Crank the starter for 10 seconds followed by a 20 second cool down period. This cycle can be repeated two additional times, followed by a ten minute cool down period before resuming cranking. Aer cool down, crank the starter again, three cycles of 10 seconds followed by 20 seconds of cool down. If the engine still fails to start, an investigation to determine the cause should be initiated.
Since the engine is closely cowled for eicient in-flight engine cooling, precautions should be taken to avoid overheating during prolonged engine operation on the ground. Also, long periods of idling may cause fouled spark plugs.
MAGNETO CHECK
The magneto check should be made at 1800 RPM as follows. Move ignition switch first to R position and note RPM. Next move switch back to BOTH to clear the other set of plugs. Then move switch to the L position, note RPM and return the switch to the BOTH position. RPM drop should not exceed 175 RPM on either mag­neto or show greater than 50 RPM dierential between magnetos. If there is a doubt concerning operation of the ignition system, RPM checks at higher engine speeds will usually confirm whether a deficiency exists. An absence of RPM drop may be an indication of faulty grounding of one side of the ignition system or should be cause for suspicion that the magneto timing is set in advance of the setting specified.
LEANING FOR GROUND OPERATIONS
For all ground operations, aer starting the engine and when the engine is running smoothly:
1. Set the throttle to 1200 RPM.
2. Lean the mixture for maximum RPM.
3. Set the throttle to an RPM appropriate for ground
operations (800 to 1000 RPM recommended)
NOTE: If ground operation will be required aer the BEFORE TAKEOFF checklist is completed, lean the mixture again (as described above) until ready for the TAKEOFF checklist.
TAXIING
When taxiing, it is important that speed and use of brakes be held to a minimum and that all controls be utilized to maintain directional control and balance. Taxiing over loose gravel or cinders should be done at low engine speed to avoid abrasion and stone damage to the propeller tips.
BEFORE TAKEOFF
WARM UP
If the engine idles (approximately 600 RPM) and accelerates smoothly, the airplane is ready for takeo.
ALTERNATOR CHECK
Prior to flights where verification of proper alternator and alternator control unit operation is essential (such as night or instrument flights), a positive verification can be made by loading the electrical system momen­tarily (3 to 5 seconds) with the landing light or by operating the wing flaps during the engine runup (1800 RPM). The ammeter will remain within a needle width of its initial reading if the alternator and alternator control unit are operating properly.
LANDING LIGHTS
If landing lights are to be used to enhance the visibility of the airplane in the traic pattern or enroute, it is recommended that only the taxi light be used. This will extend the service life of the landing light appreciably.
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PROCEDURES EXPLAINED
TAKEOFF
POWER CHECK
It is important to check full throttle engine operation early in the takeo roll. Any sign of rough engine operation or sluggish engine acceleration is good cause for discontinuing the takeo. If this occurs, you are justified in making a thorough full throttle static run-up before another takeo is attempted. The engine should run smoothly and turn approximately 2350 - 2400 RPM.
Full throttle run-ups over loose gravel are especially harmful to propeller tips. When takeos must be made over a gravel surface, advance the throttle slowly. This allows the airplane to start rolling before high RPM is developed, and the gravel will be blown behind the propeller rather than pulled into it.
Prior to takeo from fields above 5000 feet pressure elevation, the mixture should be leaned to give maximum RPM at full throttle, with the airplane not moving. This mixture setting should provide a fuel flow that closely matches that shown on the Maximum Power Fuel Flow placard. Aer full throttle is applied, adjust the throttle friction lock clockwise to prevent the throttle from moving back from a maximum power position. Similar friction lock adjustments should be made as required in other flight conditions to hold the throttle setting.
WING FLAP SETTINGS
Normal takeos use wing flaps UP - 20° (10° preferred). Using 20° wing flaps reduces the ground roll and total distance over an obstacle by approximately 20 percent. Flap deflections greater than 20° are not approved for takeo. If 20° wing flaps are used for takeo, the flaps should stay at 20° until all obstacles are cleared and a safe flap retraction speed of 70 KIAS is reached. For
a short field, 20° wing flaps and an obstacle clearance speed of 60 KIAS should be used.
So or rough field takeos are performed with 20° flaps by liing the airplane o the ground as soon as practical in a slightly tail low attitude. If no obstacles are ahead, the airplane should be leveled o imme­diately to accelerate to a higher climb speed. When departing a so field with an a C.G. loading, the elevator trim control should be adjusted towards the nose down direction to give comfortable control wheel forces during the initial climb.
CROSSWIND TAKEOFF
Takeos under strong crosswind conditions normally are performed with the minimum flap setting necessary for the field length, to minimize the dri angle immediately aer takeo. With the ailerons partially deflected into the wind, the airplane is accelerated to a speed slightly higher than normal, then the elevator control is used to quickly, but carefully, li the airplane o the ground and to prevent possible settling back to the runway while driing. When clear of the ground, make a coordinated turn into the wind to correct for dri.
ENROUTE CLIMB
Normal enroute climbs are performed with flaps up, at 23 in.hg. manifold pressure or full throttle, whichever is less, 2400 RPM, and 85 to 95 KIAS for the best combina­tion of performance, visibility, engine cooling, economy and passenger comfort (due to lower noise level). The mixture should be full rich during climb at altitudes up to 5000 feet pressure altitude.
If it is necessary to climb more rapidly to clear moun­tains or reach favorable winds at higher altitudes, the
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best rate of climb speed should be used with MCP. This speed is 80 KIAS at sea level, decreasing to 74 KIAS at 10,000 feet. For maximum power climb use full throttle and 2400 RPM with the mixture set in accordance with the Maximum Power Fuel Flow placard.
If an obstruction dictates the use of a steep climb angle, the best angle of climb speed should be used with flaps up and maximum power. This speed is 64 KIAS at sea level, increasing to 68 KIAS at 20,000 feet. This type of climb should be of the minimum dura­tion and engine temperatures should be carefully monitored due to the low climb speed. For maximum power, the mixture should be set in accordance with the Maximum Power Fuel Flow placard. The fuel flow values on the placard are minimum fuel flows.
MAXIMUM POWER FUEL FLOW
Altitude Fuel Flow
S.L. 20.5 GPH 2000 Feet 19.0 GPH 4000 Feet 17.5 GPH 6000 Feet 16.5 GPH 8000 Feet 15.5 GPH 10,000 Feet 14.5 GPH 12,000 Feet 13.5 GPH
CRUISE
Normal cruise is performed between 55% and 80% of the rated MCP. However, any power setting within the green arc ranges on the manifold pressure indicator and tachometer may be used. The power setting and corresponding fuel consumption for various altitudes can be determined by using the data in the Performance Section.
NOTE Cruise flight should use 75% power as much as possible until the engine has operated for a total of 50 hours or oil consumption has stabilized. Operation at this higher power will ensure proper seating of the piston rings and is applicable to new engines, and engines in service following cylinder replacement or top overhaul of one or more cylinders.
The Cruise Performance charts provide the pilot with flight planning information for the Model 182T in still air with speed fairings installed. Power, altitude, and winds determine the time and fuel needed to
complete any flight.
The Cruise Performance Table shows the true airspeed and nautical miles per gallon during cruise for various altitudes and percent powers, and is based on standard conditions and zero wind. This table should be used as a guide, along with the available winds alo information, to determine the most favorable altitude and power setting for a given trip. The selection of cruise altitude on the basis of the most favorable wind conditions and the use of low power settings are significant factors that should be considered on every trip to reduce fuel consumption.
In addition to power settings, proper leaning techniques also contribute to greater range and are figured into cruise performance tables. To achieve the recommended lean mixture fuel consumption figures shown in the Performance Section, the mixture should be leaned using the Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) indicator as noted.
For reduced noise levels, it is desirable to select the lowest RPM in the green arc range for a given percent power that will provide smooth engine operation. The cowl flaps should be opened, if necessary, to maintain the cylinder head temperature at approximately two­thirds of the normal operating range (green band).
The Cruise Performance charts provide the pilot with cruise performance at maximum gross weight. When normal cruise is performed at reduced weights there is an increase in true airspeed. During normal cruise at power settings between 55% and 80%, the true airspeed will increase approximately 1 knot for every 150 pounds below maximum gross weight. During normal cruise at power settings below 70%, the true airspeed will increase approximately 1 knot for every 125 pounds below maximum gross weight.
The fuel injection system employed on this engine is considered to be non-icing. In the event that unusual conditions cause the intake air filter to become clogged or iced over, an alternate intake air door opens auto­matically for the most eicient use of either normal or alternate air, depending on the amount of filter block­age. Due to the lower intake pressure available through the alternate air door or a partially blocked filter, manifold pressure can decrease from a cruise power setting. This manifold pressure should be recovered by increasing the throttle setting or setting a higher RPM as necessary to maintain desiredpower.
CRUISE PERFORMANCE TABLE
ALTITUDE
Sea Level 141 10.2 138 10.6 129 11.3 118 11.8
4,000 feet 144 10.4 140 10.8 131 11.4 120 12.0
8,000 feet --- --- 142 11.0 133 11.6 122 12.1
10,000 feet --- --- --- --- 135 11.8 124 12.3
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80% POWER 75% POWER 65% POWER 55% POWER
KTAS NMPG KTAS NMPG KTAS NMPG KTAS NMPG
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PROCEDURES EXPLAINED
LEANING USING THE EGT INDICATOR
At or below 80% power in level cruise flight, the exhaust gas temperature (EGT) indicator is used to lean the fuel-air mixture for best performance or economy. The Cruise Performance charts are based on the EGT to adjust the mixture to Recommended Lean per EGT Table below:
MIXTURE DESCRIPTION EGT
Recommended Lean 50° Rich of Peak EGT Best Economy Peak EGT Best Power 125° Rich of Peak EGT
Operation at peak EGT provides the best fuel economy. This results in approximately 4% greater range than shown in this POH accompanied by approxi­mately a 3 knot decrease in speed. Under some condi­tions, engine roughness may occur while operating at peak EGT. In this case, operate at the recommended lean mixture.
NOTE: Any change in altitude or power setting will require a change in the recommended lean mixture setting and a recheck of the EGT setting. The EGT indicators take several seconds, aer a mixture adjustment, to start to show EGT changes. Finding peak EGT and adjusting the mixture to the applicable setting should take approximately one minute when the adjustments are made carefully and accurately. Adjusting the mixture quickly is not recommended.
FUEL SAVINGS PROCEDURES FOR FLIGHT TRAINING OPERATIONS
For best fuel economy during normal operations, the following procedures are recommended.
1. After engine start and for all ground opera-
tions, set the throttle to 1200 RPM and lean the mixture for maximum RPM. After leaning, set the throttle to the appropriate RPM for ground operations. Leave the mixture at this setting until beginning the BEFORE TAKEOFF checklist. After the BEFORE TAKEOFF checklist is complete, lean the mixture again as described above, until ready to perform the TAKEOFF checklist.
2. Adjust the mixture for placarded
fuel flows during MCP climbs.
3. Lean the mixture at any altitude for
RECOMMENDED LEAN or BEST ECONOMY fuel flows when using 80% or less power.
NOTE Using the above recommended procedures can provide fuel savings in excess of 5% when compared to typical training operations at full rich mixture. In addition, the above procedures will minimize spark plug fouling since the reduction in fuel consumption results in a proportional reduction in tetraethyl lead passing through the engine.
STA LLS
The stall characteristics are conventional and aural warning is provided by a stall warning horn which sounds between 5 and 10 KIAS above the stall in all configurations.
LANDING
Normal landing approaches can be made with power on or power o with any flap setting within the flap airspeed limits. Surface winds and air turbulence are usually the primary factors in determining the most comfortable approach speeds. Steep slips with flap set­tings greater than 20° can cause a slight tendency for the elevator to oscillate under certain combinations of airspeed, sideslip angle, and center of gravity loadings.
Landing at slower speeds will result in shorter land­ing distances and minimum wear to tires and brakes. Power must be at idle as the main wheels touch the ground. The main wheels must touch the ground before the nosewheel. The nosewheel must be lowered to the runway carefully aer the speed has diminished to avoid unnecessary nose gear loads. This procedure is very important for rough or so field landings.
SHORT FIELD LANDING
For a short field landing in smooth air conditions, approach at 60 KIAS with FULL flaps using enough power to control the glide path. Slightly higher approach speeds should be used in turbulent air conditions. Aer all approach obstacles are cleared, smoothly reduce power and hold the approach speed by lowering the nose of the airplane. The main wheels must touch the ground before the nosewheel with power at idle. Immediately aer the main wheels touch the ground, carefully lower the nosewheel and apply heavy braking as required. For maximum brake performance, retract the flaps, hold the control wheel full back, and apply maximum brake pressure without skidding the tires.
CROSSWIND LANDING
When landing in a strong crosswind, use the minimum flap setting required for the field length. If flap settings greater than 20° are used in sideslips with full rudder deflection, some elevator oscillation may be felt at normal approach speeds. However, this does not aect control of the airplane. Although the crab or combina­tion method of dri correction may be used, the wing low method gives the best control. Aer touchdown, hold a straight course with the steerable nosewheel, with aileron deflection as applicable, and occasional braking if necessary.
The maximum allowable crosswind velocity is dependent upon pilot capability as well as airplane limitations. Operation in direct crosswinds of 15 knots has been demonstrated.
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BALKED LANDING
In a balked landing (go-around) climb, reduce the flap setting to 20° immediately aer full power is applied and climb at 55 KIAS. Above 5000 feet pressure altitude, lean the mixture to obtain maximum RPM. Aer clear­ing any obstacles, carefully retract the flaps and allow the airplane to accelerate to normal climb airspeed.
COLD WEATHER OPERATION
When air temperatures are below 20°F (-6°C), the use of an external preheater and an external power source are recommended whenever possible to obtain positive starting and to reduce wear and abuse to the engine and electrical system. Preheat will thaw the oil trapped in the oil cooler, which probably will be congealed prior to starting in extremely cold temperatures.
HOT WEATHER OPERATION
Avoid prolonged engine operation on the ground.
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PERFORMANCE
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ERFORMANCE DATA CHARTS ON THE
following pages are presented so that
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the airplane under various conditions, and also, to facilitate the planning of flights in detail and with reasonable accuracy. The data in the charts has been computed from actual flight tests with the airplane and engine in good condition and approximating average piloting techniques. It should be noted that performance information presented in the range and endurance profile charts allows for 45 minutes reserve fuel at the specified power setting. Fuel flow data for cruise is based on the recommended lean mixture setting at all altitudes. Some indeterminate variables such as mixture leaning technique, fuel metering
you may know what to expect from
characteristics, engine and propeller condition, and air turbulence may account for variations of 10% or more in range and endurance.
Therefore, it is important to utilize all available
information to estimate the fuel required for the particular flight and to flight plan in a conservative manner.
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PERFORMANCE
STALL SPEEDS AT 3100 POUNDS
CONDITIONS: Power O
NOTES
1. Altitude loss during a stall recovery
may be as much as 250 feet.
2. KIAS values are approximate.
MOST REARWARD CENTER OF GRAVITY
Flap Setting Angle of Bank
30º 45º 60º UP 50 54 59 71 20º 43 46 51 61
FULL 40 43 48 57
MOST FORWARD CENTER OF GRAVITY
Flap Setting Angle of Bank
30º 45º 60º UP 51 55 61 72
20º 44 47 52 62 FULLº 41 44 49 58
NOTE: Maximum demonstrated crosswind component is 15 KTS (not a limitation).
SHORT FIELD TAKEOFF DISTANCE
CONDITIONS:
▶ Flaps 20° ▶ 2400 RPM, Full Throttle and Mixture
set Prior to Brake Release
▶ Cowl Flaps OPEN ▶ Paved, level, dry runway ▶ Zero Wind
Li O 49 KIAS
Speed at 50 : 58 KIAS
NOTES:
1. Short field technique as specified.
2. Prior to takeoff, the mixture should be
leaned to the Maximum Power Fuel Flow
schedule in a full throttle, static run-up.
3. Decrease distances 10% for each 9 knots head-
wind. For operation with tail winds up to 10 knots,
increase distances by 10% for each 2 knots.
4. Where distance value have been deleted,
climb performance after lift-off is less
than 150 FPM at takeoff speed.
5. • For operation on dry, grass runway, increase
distances by 15% of the “ground roll” figure.
6. Where distance value has been deleted,
climb performance is minimal.
SHORT FIELD TAKEOFF DISTANCE AT 3100 POUNDS
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SHORT FIELD TAKEOFF DISTANCE AT 2300 POUNDS
SHORT FIELD TAKEOFF DISTANCE AT 2700 POUNDS
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PERFORMANCE
MAXIMUM RATE-OF-CLIMB AT 3100 POUNDS
CONDITIONS:
▶ Flaps UP ▶ 2400 RPM, Full Throttle and mixture set to Maximum Power Fuel Flow Placard. ▶ Cowl Flaps OPEN
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TIME, FUEL AND DISTANCE TO CLIMB AT 3100 POUNDS
CONDITIONS:
▶ Flaps UP ▶ 2400 RPM, Full Throttle and mixture set to Maximum Power Fuel Flow Placard. ▶ Cowl Flaps OPEN ▶ Standard Temperature
NOTES:
1. Add 1.7 gallons of fuel for engine start, taxi and takeoff allowance.
2. Increase time, fuel and distance by 10% for each 10°C above standard temperature.
3. Distances shown are based on zero wind.
MAXIMUM RATE OF CLIMB
NORMAL CLIMB - 90 KIAS
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PERFORMANCE
CRUISE PERFORMANCE
CONDITIONS:
▶ 3100 Pounds ▶ Recommended Lean Mixture ▶ Cowl Flaps CLOSED
PRESSURE ALTITUDE SEA LEVEL
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NOTE:
1. Maximum cruise power is 80% MCP. Power set-
tings above 80% are listed to aid interpolation.
2. For best economy, operate at peak EGT.
PRESSURE ALTITUDE 2000 FEET
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PERFORMANCE
PRESSURE ALTITUDE 4000 FEET
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PRESSURE ALTITUDE 6000 FEET
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PERFORMANCE
PRESSURE ALTITUDE 8000 FEET
PRESSURE ALTITUDE 10,000 FEET
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PRESSURE ALTITUDE 12,000 FEET
PRESSURE ALTITUDE 14,000 FEET
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PERFORMANCE
RANGE PROFILE
CONDITIONS:
NOTES: This chart allows for the fuel used for engine start, taxi, takeo and climb, and the
distance during a normal climb up to 10,000 feet and maximum climb above 10,000 feet.
▶ 3100 Pounds ▶ Normal Climb to 10,000 feet then, Maximum Performance Climb, with Placard Mixture ▶ Recommended Lean Mixture for CruiseStandard Temperature ▶ Zero Wind
45 MINUTES RESERVE 64 GALLONS USABLE FUEL
45 MINUTES RESERVE 87 GALLONS USABLE FUEL
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ENDURANCE PROFILE
CONDITIONS:
▶ 3100 Pounds ▶ Normal Climb to 10,000 feet then, Maximum Performance Climb, with Placard Mixture ▶ Recommended Lean Mixture for CruiseStandard Temperature ▶ Zero Wind
NOTES: This chart allows for the fuel used for engine start, taxi, takeo and climb, and the distance during a normal climb up to 10,000 feet and maximum climb above 10,000 feet.
45 MINUTES RESERVE 64 GALLONS USABLE FUEL
45 MINUTES RESERVE 87 GALLONS USABLE FUEL
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PERFORMANCE
SHORT FIELD LANDING DISTANCE AT 2950 POUNDS
CONDITIONS:
NOTE
1. Short field technique as specified in Section 4.
2. Decrease distances 10% for each 9 knots headwind. For operation with
3. For operation on dry grass runway, increase dis-
4. If landing with flaps up, increase the approach speed by
▶ Flaps FULL ▶ Zero Wind ▶ Power IDLE ▶ Paved, Level, Dry Runway ▶ Maximum Braking ▶ Speed at 50 ft: 60 KIAS
tail winds up to 10 knots, increase distances by 10% for each 2 knots.
tances by 45% of the “ground roll” figure.
10 KIAS and allow for 40% longer distances.
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EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
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HIS SECTION PROVIDES CHECKLIST AND EXPLAINED PROCEDURES
for coping with emergencies that may occur. Emergencies caused
T
by airplane or engine malfunctions are extremely rare if proper preflight inspections and maintenance are practiced. En-route weather emergencies can be minimized or eliminated by careful flight planning and good judgment when unexpected weather is encountered. However, should an emergency arise, the basic guidelines described in this section should be considered and applied as necessary to correct the problem. In any emergency situation, the most important task is continued control of the airplane and maneuver to execute a successful landing.
AIRSPEEDS FOR EMERGENCY OPERATION
Engine Failure Aer Takeo
Wing Flaps Up: 75 KIAS Wing Flaps Down: 70 KIAS
Maneuvering Speed
3100 lbs: 110 KIAS 2600 lbs: 101 KIAS 2100 lbs: 91 KIAS
Maximum Glide
3100 lbs: 76 KIAS 2600 lbs: 70 KIAS 2100 lbs: 58 KIAS
Precautionary Landing With Engine Power: 70 KIAS Wing Flaps Up: 75 KIAS Wing Flaps Down: 70 KIAS
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EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
ENGINE FAILURE DURING TAKEOFF ROLL
1. Throttle — IDLE.
2. Brakes— APPLY.
3. Wing Flaps — R ETRACT.
4. Mixture — IDLE CUT OFF (pull full out).
5. Magnetos Switch — O FF.
6. Master Switch (ALT and BAT) — OFF.
ENGINE FAILURE IMMEDIATELY AFTER TAKEOFF
1. Airspeed — 75 KIAS (flaps
UP)- 70 KIAS (flaps DOWN).
2. Mixture — IDLE CUT OFF (pull full out).
3. FUEL SELECTOR Valve — PUSH
DOWN and ROTATE to OFF
4. Magnetos Switch — O FF.
5. Wing Flaps — AS REQUIRED
(FULL recommended).
6. Master Switch — O FF.
7. Cabin Door — UNL ATCH.
8. Land — STRAIGHT AHEAD.
ENGINE FAILURE DURING FLIGHT (RESTART PROCEDURES)
1. Airspeed — 76 KIAS (best glide speed)
2. Fuel Selector Valve — BOTH.
3. Fuel Pump Switch — ON.
4. Mixture — RICH (if restart
has not occurred).
5. Magnetos Switch — BOTH (or
START if propeller is stopped).
NOTE: If the propeller is windmilling, the engine will restart automatically within a few seconds. If the propeller has stopped (possible at low speeds), turn the ignition switch to START, advance the throttle slowly from idle and lean the mixture from full rich as required for smooth operation.
6. Fuel Pump Switch — OFF.
NOTE: If the fuel flow indicator immediately drops to zero (indicating an engine-driven fuel pump failure), return the Auxiliary Fuel Pump Switch to the ON position.
RED TYPE = commit to memory.
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EMERGENCY LANDING
PRECAUTIONARY
WITHOUT ENGINE POWER
1. Passenger Seat Backs — MOST
UPRIGHT POSITION.
2. Seats and Seat Belts — SECURE.
3. Airspeed — 75 KIAS - Flaps UP
70 KIAS - Flaps 10° - FULL
4. Mixture — IDLE CUT OFF (pull full out).
5. FUEL SELECTOR Valve — PUSH
DOWN and ROTATE to OFF
6. magnetos Switch — O FF.
7. Wing Flaps — AS REQUIRED
(FULL recommended).
8. Master Switch (ALT and BAT)
OFF (when landing is assured).
9. Doors — UNLATCH PRIOR
TO TOUCHDOWN.
10. Touchdown — SLIGHTLY TAIL LOW.
11. Brakes — APPLY HEAVILY.
LANDING WITH ENGINE POWER
1. Passenger Seat Backs — MOST
UPRIGHT POSITION.
2. Seats and Seat Belts — SECURE.
3. Airspeed — 75 KIAS.
4. Wing Flaps — 20°.
5. Selected Field — FLY OVER, noting
terrain and obstructions.
6. Avionics Master Switch and
Electrical Switches — OFF.
7. Wing Flaps — FULL (on final approach).
8. Airspeed — 70 KIAS.
9. Master Switch (ALT and BAT) — OFF.
10. Doors — UNLATCH PRIOR
TO TOUCHDOWN.
11. Touchdown — SLIGHTLY TAIL LOW.
12. Mixture — IDLE CUT OFF (pull full out).
13. Magnetos Switch — OFF.
14. Brakes — APPLY HEAVILY.
RED TYPE = commit to memory.
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EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
FIRE DURING START ON GROUND
1. Ignition Switch — START,
Continue Cranking to get a start
which would suck the flames and accumulated fuel into the engine.
If engine starts:
2. Power — 1800 RPM for a few minutes.
3. Engine — SHUTDOWN and
inspect for damage.
If engine fails to start:
4. Throttle — FULL OPEN (push full in).
5. Mixture — IDLE CUT OFF (pull full out).
6. MAGNETOS Switch — START
(continue cranking)
7. Fuel Selector Valve — OFF
8. Fuel Pump — O FF.
9. MAGNETOS Switch — OFF
10. MASTER Switch (Alt and BAT) — OFF
11. Engine — SECURE
12. Parking Brake — RELEASE.
13. Fire Extinguisher — OBTAIN
(have ground attendants obtain if not installed).
14. Airplane — E VACUATE.
15. Fire — EXTINGUISH using fire
extinguisher, wool blanket, or dirt.
16. Fire Damage — INSPECT, repair damage
or replace damaged components or wiring before conducting another flight.
ENGINE FIRE IN FLIGHT
1. Mixture — IDLE CUT OFF.
2. FUEL SELECTOR Valve — PUSH
DOWN and ROTATE to OFF
3. Fuel Pump Switch — OFF.
4. Master Switch (ALT and BAT) — OFF.
5. Cabin Vents — OPEN (as needed)
6. Cabin Heat and Air — OFF (push full in).
7. Airspeed — 100 KIAS (If fire is not
extinguished, increase glide speed to find an airspeed - within airspeed limitations - which will provide an incombustible mixture).
8. Forced Landing — EXECUTE (as
described in Emergency Landing Without Engine Power).
AMMETER SHOWS EXCESSIVE RATE OF CHARGE (FULL SCALE DEFLECTION)
1. Alternator — O FF.
2. Nonessential Electrical
Equipment — O FF.
3. Flight — TERMINATE as
soon as practical.
RED TYPE = commit to memory.
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LOW VOLTAGE
VACUUM SYSTEM ANNUNCIATOR (VOLTS) ILLUMINATES DURING FLIGHT (AMMETER INDICATES DISCHARGE)
NOTE: Illumination of “VOLTS” on the annunciator panel may occur during low RPM conditions with an electrical load on the system such as during a low RPM taxi. Under these conditions, the annunciator will go out at higher RPM. The master switch need not be recycled since an overvoltage condition has not occurred to deactivate the alternator system.
1. Avionics Master Switch — OFF.
2. Alternator Circuit Breaker
(ALT FLD) — CHECK IN.
3. Master Switch — OFF (both sides).
4. Master Switch — ON.
5. Low Voltage Annunciator (VOLTS) —
CHECK OFF.
6. Avionics Master Switch — ON.
If low voltage annunciator (VOLTS) illuminates again:
7. Alternator— OFF.
8. Nonessential Radio and
Electrical Equipment — OFF.
9. Flight — TERMINATE as
soon as practical.
FAILURE
LEFT Vacuum (L VAC) Annunciator or Right
Vacuum (VAC R) Annunciator Illuminates.
IF VACUUM IS NOT WITHIN NORMAL OPERATING
LIMITS, A FAILURE HAS OCCURRED IN THE VACUUM
SYSTEM AND PARTIAL PANEL PROCEDURES
MAY BE REQUIRED FOR CONTINUED FLIGHT.
1. Vacuum Gauge — CHECK to ensure
vacuum within normal operating limits.
RED TYPE = commit to memory.
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EMERGENCIES EXPLAINED
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HE FOLLOWING AMPLIFIED EMERGENCY PROCEDURES ELABORATE
upon information contained in the Emergency Procedures
T
Checklists portion of this section. These procedures also include information not readily adaptable to a checklist format, and material to which a pilot could not be expected to refer in resolution of a specific emergency. This information should be reviewed in detail prior to flying the airplane, as well as reviewed on a regular basis to keep pilot’s knowledge of procedures fresh.
ENGINE FAILURE
If an engine failure occurs during the takeo roll, the most important thing to do is stop the airplane on the remaining runway. Those extra items on the checklist will provide added safety aer a failure of this type. Prompt lowering of the nose to maintain airspeed and establish a glide attitude is the first response to an engine failure aer takeo. In most cases, the landing should be planned straight ahead with only small changes in direction to avoid obstructions. Altitude and airspeed are seldom suicient to execute a 180° gliding turn necessary to return to the runway. The checklist procedures assume that adequate time exists to secure the fuel and ignition systems prior to touchdown. Aer an engine failure in flight, the most important course of action is to continue flying the airplane. Best glide speed should be established as quickly as possible. While gliding toward a suitable landing area, an eort should be made to identify the cause of the failure. If time permits, an engine restart should be attempted as shown in the checklist. If the engine cannot be restarted, a forced landing without power must be completed.
FORCED LANDINGS
If all attempts to restart the engine fail and a forced land­ing is imminent, select a suitable field and prepare for the landing as discussed under the Emergency Landing Without Engine Power checklist. Transmit Mayday message on 121.5 MHz giving location and intentions and squawk 7700. Before attempting an “o airport” landing with engine power available, one should fly over the landing area at a safe but low altitude to inspect the terrain for obstructions and surface conditions, proceed ing as discussed under the Precautionary Landing With Engine Power checklist. Prepare for ditching by securing or jettisoning heavy objects located in the baggage area and collect folded coats for protection of occupants’ face at touchdown. Transmit Mayday message on 121.5 MHz giving location and intentions and squawk 7700. Avoid a landing flare because of diiculty in judging height over a water surface. The checklist assumes the availability of power to make a precautionary water landing. If power is not available, use of the airspeeds noted with minimum flap extension will provide a more favorable attitude for a power o ditching. In a forced landing situation, do not set the AVIONICS MASTER switch or the airplane MASTER
-
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EMERGENCIES EXPLAINED
switch to the OFF position until a landing is assured. When these switches are in the OFF position, the airplane electrical systems are de-energized. Before performing a forced landing, especially in remote and mountainous areas, activate the ELT transmitter by positioning the cockpit-mounted switch to the ON position.
LANDING WITHOUT ELEVATOR CONTROL
Trim for horizontal flight with an airspeed of approxi­mately 80 KIAS by using throttle and elevator trim controls. Then do not change the elevator trim control setting; control the glide angle by adjusting power exclusively. At flare out, the nose down moment result­ing from power reduction is an adverse factor and the airplane may land on the nose wheel. Consequently, at flare, the elevator trim control should be adjusted toward the full nose up position and the power adjusted so that the airplane will rotate to the horizontal attitude for touchdown. Close the throttle at touchdown.
FIRES
Although engine fires are extremely rare in flight, the steps of the appropriate checklist should be followed if one is encountered. Aer completion of this procedure, execute a forced landing. Do not attempt to restart the engine. The initial indication of an electrical fire is usually the odor of burning insulation. The checklist for this problem should result in elimination of the fire.
TOTAL VACUUM SYSTEM FAILURE
If both the vacuum pumps fail in flight, the directional indicator and attitude indicator will be disabled, and the pilot will have to rely on the turn coordinator if he inadvertently flies into clouds. If an autopilot is installed, it too may be aected. The following instructions assume that only the electrically powered turn coordinator is operative, and that the pilot is not completely proficient in instrument flying.
SPINS
NEVER INTENTIONALLY SPIN an aircra that is not designed and built to be spun (aerobatic aircra).
Should an inadvertent spin occur, the following
recovery procedure should be used:
NOTE: If disorientation precludes a visual determination of the direction of rotation, the symbolic airplane in the turn coordinator may be referred to for this information.
ROUGH ENGINE OPERATION OR LOSS OF POWER
SPARK PLUG FOULING
A slight engine roughness in flight may be caused by one or more spark plugs becoming fouled by carbon or lead deposits. This may be verified by turning the ignition switch momentarily from BOTH to either L or R position. An obvious power loss in single ignition operation is evidence of spark plug or magneto trouble. Assuming that spark plugs are the more likely cause, lean the mixture to the recommended lean setting for cruising flight. If the problem does not clear up in several minutes, determine if a richer mixture setting will produce smoother operation. If not, proceed to the nearest airport for repairs using the BOTH position of the ignition switch unless extreme roughness dictates the use of a single igni tion position.
MAGNETO MALFUNCTION
A sudden engine roughness or misfiring is usually evidence of magneto problems. Switching from BOTH to either L or R ignition switch position will identify which magneto is malfunctioning. Select dierent power settings and enrichen the mixture to determine if continued operation on BOTH magnetos is possible. If not, switch to the good magneto and proceed to the nearest airport for repairs.
ENGINE-DRIVEN FUEL PUMP FAILURE
Failure of the engine-driven fuel pump will result in an immediate loss of engine power, similar to fuel exhaustion or starvation, but while operating from a fuel tank containing adequate fuel. A sudden reduc­tion in indicated fuel flow will occur just before loss of engine power. If the engine-driven fuel pump fails, immediately set the auxiliary fuel pump switch (FUEL PUMP) to the ON position to restore engine power. The flight should be terminated as soon as practical and the engine-driven fuel pump repaired.
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70
1. Retard throttle to idle position.
2. Place ailerons in neutral position.
3. Apply and hold full rudder oppo-
4. Just after the rudder reaches the stop,
5. Hold these control inputs until rotation
6. As rotation stops, neutralize rudder, and make
A2ASIMULATIONS
LOW OIL PRESSURE
If the low oil pressure annunciator (OIL PRESS) illuminates and oil temperature remains normal,
site to the direction of rotation.
move the control wheel briskly for­ward far enoughto break the stall.
stops. Premature relaxation of the con­trol inputs may extend the recovery.
a smooth recovery from the resulting dive.
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the oil pressure sending unit or relief valve may be malfunctioning. Land at the nearest airport to inspect the source of trouble. If a total loss of oil pressure is accompanied by a rise in oil temperature, there is good reason to suspect an engine failure is imminent. Reduce engine power immediately and select a suitable forced landing field. Use only the minimum power required to reach the desired touchdown spot.
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ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM MALFUNCTIONS
Malfunctions in the electrical power supply system can be detected by periodic monitoring of the ammeter and low voltage annunciator (VOLTS); however, the cause of these malfunctions is usually diicult to deter­mine. A broken alternator drive belt or wiring is most likely the cause of alternator failures, although other factors could cause the problem. A defective alternator control unit can also cause malfunctions. Problems of this nature constitute an electrical emergency and should be dealt with immediately. Electrical power malfunctions usually fall into two categories: excessive rate of charge and insuicient rate of charge. The fol­lowing paragraphs describe the recommended remedy for each situation.
EXCESSIVE RATE OF CHARGE
Aer engine starting and heavy electrical usage at low engine speeds (such as extended taxiing) the battery condition will be low enough to accept above normal charging during the initial part of a flight. However, aer thirty minutes of cruising flight, the ammeter should be indicating less than two needle widths of charging current. If the charging rate were to remain above this value on a long flight, the battery would overheat and evaporate the electrolyte at an excessive rate. Electronic components in the electri­cal system can be adversely aected by higher than normal voltage. The alternator control unit includes an overvoltage sensor which normally will automatically shut down the alternator if the charge voltage reaches approximately 31.5 volts. If the overvoltage sensor
malfunctions, as evidenced by an excessive rate of charge shown on the ammeter, the alternator should be turned o, nonessential electrical equipment turned o and the flight terminated as soon as practical.
INSUFFICIENT RATE OF CHARGE
The low voltage annunciator (VOLTS) may come on and ammeter discharge indications may occur during low RPM conditions with an electrical load on the system, such as during a low RPM taxi. Under these conditions, the annuciator will go o at higher RPM.
If the overvoltage sensor should shut down the alternator and trip the alternator circuit breaker (ALT FLD), or if the alternator output is low, a discharge rate will be shown on the ammeter followed by illumination of the low voltage annunciator (VOLTS). Since this may be a “nuisance” trip out, an attempt should be made to reactivate the alternator system. To reactivate, set the avionics master switch to the OFF position, check that the alternator circuit breaker (ALT FLD) is in, then set both sides of the master switch to the OFF position and then to the ON position. If the problem no longer exists, normal alternator charging will resume and the low voltage annunciator (VOLTS) will go o. The avionics master switch may then be returned to the ON position. If the annunciator illuminates again, a malfunction is confirmed. In this event, the flight should be terminated and/or the current drain on the battery minimized because the battery can supply the electrical system for only a limited period of time. Battery power must be conserved for later operation of the wing flaps and, if the emergency occurs at night, for possible use of the landing lights during landing.
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HIS SECTION PROVIDES
description and operation of
T
the airplane and its systems.
FLIGHT CONTROLS
The airplane’s flight control system consists of conven­tional aileron, rudder, and elevator control surfaces. The control surfaces are manually operated through cables and mechanical linkage using a control wheel for the ailerons and elevator, and rudder/brake pedals for the rudder.
TRIM SYSTEM
A manually operated rudder and elevator trim is provided. The rudder is trimmed through a bungee connected to the rudder control system and a trim control wheel mounted on the control pedestal. This is accomplished by rotating the horizontally mounted trim control wheel either le or right to the desired trim position. Rotating the trim wheel to the right will trim nose-right; conversely, rotating it to the le will trim nose-le. The elevator is trimmed through the elevator trim tab by utilizing the vertically mounted trim control wheel. Forward rotation of the trim wheel will trim nose-down, conversely, a rotation will trim nose-up.
INSTRUMENT PANEL
The instrument panel is of all-metal construction, and is designed in segments to allow related groups of instruments, switches and controls to be removed without removing the entire panel. For specific details concerning the instruments, switches, circuit breakers, and controls on the instrument panel, refer to related topics in this section.
COCKPIT FAMILIARIZATION
The center panel contains various avionics equipment arranged in a vertical rack. This arrangement allows each component to be removed without having to access the backside of the panel. Below the panel are the throttle, mixture, alternate static air and lighting controls.
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AIRPLANE & SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION
1. Oil Temperature and Oil
Pressure Indicator
2. Fuel Quantity Indicators
3. Vacuum Gauge / Ammeter
4. EGT and CHT Indicator
5. Digital Clock / OAT Indicator
6. Turn Coordinator
7. Airspeed Indicator
8. Directional Indicator
9. Attitude Indicator
10. Tachometer
11. Vertical Speed Indicator
12. Altimeter
13. GPS Annunciator / Switch
14. ADF Indicator
15. Course Deviation Indicator 2
16. Course Deviation and
Glide Slope Indicator 1
17. Annunciator Lights
18. Upper Panel
19. Callsign Panel
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20. Day / Night / Test Switch
21. Audio Control Panel
22. GPS Receiver
23. Nav / Com Radio #1
24. Nav / Com Radio #2
25. ADF Receiver
26. Transponder
27. Autopilot
28. Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME)
29. ELT Remote Switch / Annunciator
30. Hour Meter
31. Avionics Circuit Breaker Panel
32. Headset Inputs
33. Pilot’s Operating Handbook
34. Glove Box
35. Cabin Defrost
36. Cabin Heat
37. Cabin Air
38. Flap Switch Lever and Indicator
39. Mixture Control
40. Propeller Control
41. Throttle Control
42. Rudder Trim
43. Cowl Flap Control Lever
44. Fuel Selector
45. Elevator Trim Control
46. Alternate Static Air Control
47. Glareshield and Pedestal
Dimming Control
48. Radio Panel Dimming Control
49. Avionics Master Switch
50. Pitot Heat
51. Lights
52. Auxiliary Fuel Pump Switch
53. Master Switch
54. Ignition Switch
55. Controls Lock
56. Map
57. Manifold Pressure / Fuel
Flow Indicator
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GROUND CONTROL
Eective ground control while taxiing is accomplished through nose wheel steering by using the rudder pedals; le rudder pedal to steer le and right rudder pedal to steer right. When a rudder pedal is depressed, a spring loaded steering bungee (which is connected to the nose gear and to the rudder bars) will turn the nose wheel through an arc of approximately 11° each side of center. By applying either le or right brake, the degree of turn may be increased up to 29° each side of center.
WING FLAP SYSTEM
The single-slot type wing flaps, are extended or retracted by positioning the wing flap switch lever on the instrument panel to the desired flap deflection position. The switch lever is moved up or down in a slotted panel that provides mechanical stops at the 10°, 20° and 30° positions. To change flap setting, the flap lever is moved to the right to clear mechanical stops at the 10° and 20° positions. A scale and pointer to the le of the flap switch indicates flap travel in degrees. The wing flap system circuit is protected by a 10- ampere circuit breaker, labeled FLAP, on the le side of the control panel.
LANDING GEAR SYSTEM
The landing gear is of the tricycle type, with a steer­able nose wheel and two main wheels. Wheel fairings are optional equipment for both the main and nose wheels. Shock absorption is provided by the tubular spring steel main landing gear struts and the air/ oil nose gear shock strut. Each main gear wheel is equipped with a hydraulically actuated disc type brake on the inboard side of each wheel.
another valve opens on the next stroke, and it ejects the burned mixture out the exhaust. During this time, oil below is lubricating those cylinder walls and piston rings keep that oil below and out of the combus­tion chamber. Well, all the above is how things are supposed to work, but as all things in life, nothing is perfect.
Blue Smoke
If your cylinders are worn or damaged, the cylinders can suck oil up past these rings. This oil is then present when the chamber combusts, burning it, and ejecting it. Two things happen. You will see blue smoke coming out the exhaust and oil sediments will build inside your combustion chamber, slowly degrad­ing that cylinder’s ability to properly work.
Black Smoke
Your engine is a vacuum pump, sucking in an air / fuel mixture, igniting it, then ejecting the burned remains. However, if you have a bad cylinder, a faulty ignition, fouled plugs, or fuel injection issues, the complete burning of the air / fuel mixture can be compromised. The result is black smoke (unburned fuel) seen coming out of the cylinders. If you see black smoke, get the aircra on the ground and to a maintenance facility to find the cause of the problem.
CONTROL LOCKS
A control lock is provided to lock the aileron and elevator control surfaces to prevent damage to these systems by wind bueting while the airplane is parked. The lock consists of a shaped steel rod and flag. The flag identifies the control lock and cautions about its removal before starting the engine. To install the control lock, align the hole in the top of the pilot’s control wheel sha with the hole in the top of the sha collar on the instrument panel and insert the rod into the aligned holes. Installation of the lock will secure the ailerons in a neutral position and the elevators in a slightly trailing edge down position. Proper installation of the lock will place the flag over the ignition switch. In areas where high or gusty winds occur, a control surface lock should be installed over the vertical stabilizer and rudder. The control lock and any other type of locking device should be removed prior to starting the engine.
MY ENGINE IS SMOKING
Remember, your engine is a piston-powered air pump. Valves open, a piston sucks in air / fuel, ignites it,
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ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEM
The engine utilizes a full pressure, wet sump type lubrication system with aviation grade oil as the lubricant. The capacity of the engine sump, located on the bottom of the engine, is nine quarts with one additional quart contained in the engine oil filter. Oil is drawn from the sump through a filter screen on the end of a pickup tube to the engine driven oil pump. Oil from the pump passes through a full-flow oil filter, a pres­sure relief valve at the rear of the right oil gallery, and a thermostatically controlled remote oil cooler. Oil from the remote cooler is then circulated to the le oil gal­lery and propeller governor. The engine parts are then lubricated by oil from the galleries. Aer lubricating the engine, the oil returns to the sump by gravity. The filter adapter in the full-flow filter is equipped with a bypass valve which will cause lubricating oil to bypass the filter in the event the filter becomes plugged, or the oil temperature is extremely cold.
An oil dipstick/filler tube is located on the upper le side of the engine case. The dipstick and oil filler tube are accessed through a door located on the le center portion of the upper engine cowling. The engine should not be operated on less than four quarts of oil. To minimize loss of oil through the breather, fill to eight quarts for normal flights of less than three hours. For extended flight, fill to nine quarts (dipstick indication only).
Oil Pressure
Oil is the lifeblood of your engine. The countless metal parts in motion depend on constantly having a film of oil covering and separating them. Theoretically, there should be no metal on metal contact, but pressur­ized oil in between. Some times simply having oil
continuously splashed on the part is enough, yet other times actual pressure is required to keep these metal parts separated. The heavy cranksha that is respon­sible for twisting the propeller is one part that is in critical need of this pressure at all times. Running the engine without oil pressure for just minutes is enough to seize up the engine.
Oil Temperature
Understanding how temperature aects the viscosity of the lubricant is very important (viscosity is the term used to describe the lubricants resistance to flow). As your engine oil increases in temperature, it’s viscosity decreases, which means that it flows more freely. And vice-versa, as the lubricant cools down, it’s viscosity increases, making it more resistant to flow.
Accusim models this eect of oil viscosity, so under-
standing how it aects you, the pilot, is important.
When you start your engine on a cold morning, know that the oil inside your engine has a high viscosity. You must be respectful of this, as pushing an engine with thick, cold oil can cause premature oil system leaks or worse.
If you must start a very cold engine, give it just enough throttle to keep it running (not so low that it is struggling to run). Hold the idle at the lowest possible RPM and wait for the oil temperature to rise. As it rises, the oil will thin, and you may also notice the RPM actu­ally increase due to the thinner oil being easier to push through all those small areas. So ultimately, as the oil temperature rises the oil pressure drops.
IGNITION AND STARTER SYSTEM
Engine ignition is provided by two engine-driven magnetos, and two spark plugs in each cylinder. The right magneto fires the lower right and upper le spark plugs, and the le magneto fires the lower le and upper right spark plugs. Normal operation is conducted with both magnetos due to the more complete burning of the fuel/air mixture with dual ignition.
Ignition and starter operation is controlled by a rotary-type switch located on the le switch and control panel. The switch is labeled clockwise, OFF, R, L, BOTH, and START. The engine should be oper­ated on both magnetos (BOTH position) except for magneto checks. The R and L positions are for checking purposes and emergency use only. When the switch is rotated to the spring loaded START position, (with the master switch in the ON position), the starter contactor is closed and the starter, now energized, will crank the engine. When the switch is released, it will automati­cally return to the BOTH position.
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Electric Starter
The C182 Skylane has a direct-drive, electric starter, which functions very much the same way as the starter used in automobiles.
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Turning the starter on, engages the starter motor to the engine, and it cranks the engine over with electric­ity. As the engine is turning over, the pilot is providing the engine with all of its fuel and ignition requirements, with the expectation the engine starts firing (combust­ing), and begins to run on its own power (using fuel and spark).
Once the engine reaches a certain speed, the starter motor automatically disengages and the engine runs free,
AIR INDUCTION SYSTEM
The engine air induction system receives ram air through an intake on the lower front portion of the engine cowling. The intake is covered by an air filter which removes dust and other foreign matter from the induction air. Airflow passing through the filter enters an air box. The air box has a spring-loaded alternate air door. If the air induction filter should become blocked, suction created by the engine will open the door and draw unfiltered air from inside the lower cowl area. An open alternate air door will result in an approximate 10% power loss at full throttle. Aer passing through the air box, induction air enters a fuel/air control unit under the engine, and is then ducted to the engine cylinders through intake manifold tubes.
EXHAUST SYSTEM
Exhaust gas from each cylinder passes through riser assemblies to a muler and tailpipes. Outside air is pulled in around shrouds which are constructed around the outside of the muler to form heating chambers which supply heat to the cabin.
COOLING SYSTEM
Ram air for engine cooling enters through two intake openings in the front of the engine cowling. The cool­ing air is directed from above the engine, around the cylinders and other areas of the engine by baling, and then exits through cowl flaps on the lower a edge of the cowling. The cowl flaps are mechanically operated
from the cabin by means of the cowl flap control lever located on the right side of the control pedestal and is labeled OPEN, COWL FLAPS, CLOSED. Any time the control lever is repositioned, it must first be moved to the right to clear the detent.
Before starting the engine, before takeo and during high power operation, the cowl flap control lever should be placed in the OPEN position for maximum cooling. This is accomplished by moving the control lever to the right to clear a detent, then moving the control lever up to the OPEN position.
While in cruise flight, cowl flaps should be closed unless hot day conditions require them to be adjusted to keep the CHT at approximately two-thirds of the normal operating range (green band).
During extended descents, it may be necessary to completely close the cowl flaps by pushing the cowl flap control lever down to the CLOSED position.
PROPELLER
The airplane has an all metal, three-bladed, constant speed, governor regulated propeller. A setting intro­duced into the governor with the propeller control establishes the propeller speed, and thus the engine speed to be maintained. The governor then controls flow of engine oil, boosted to high pressure by the governing pump, to or from a piston in the propeller hub. Oil pressure acting on the piston twists the blades toward high pitch (low RPM). When oil pressure to the piston in the propeller hub is relieved, centrifugal force, assisted by an internal spring, twists the blades toward low pitch (high RPM).
A propeller control knob, located on the lower center instrument panel, is used to set the propeller and con­trol engine RPM as desired for various flight conditions. The control knob is labeled PROPELLER, PUSH INCR RPM. When the control knob is pushed in, blade pitch will decrease, giving a higher RPM. When the control knob is pulled out, the blade pitch increases, thereby decreasing RPM.
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FUEL SYSTEM
The airplane fuel system consists of two vented integral fuel tanks (one tank in each wing), a three-position selector valve, auxiliary fuel pump, fuel shuto valve, fuel strainer, engine driven fuel pump, fuel/air control unit, fuel distribution valve and fuel injection nozzles.
The fuel system also incorporates a fuel return system that returns fuel from the top of the fuel servo back to each integral wing tank. The system includes a flexible fuel hose assembly between the servo and the firewall. Aluminum fuel lines return the fuel to the top portion of the selector valve and then to the airplane’s integral tanks. One drain is added to properly drain the fuel return system.
FUEL DISTRIBUTION
Fuel flows by gravity from the two wing tanks through the fuel manifold (a pickup only), and to a four position selector valve. From the selector valve, fuel flows through the auxiliary fuel pump, the fuel strainer, and to the engine driven fuel pump. A portion of the fuel (approximately 7 GPH) is returned to the wing tank currently selected through the use of the fuel return system. From the engine driven fuel pump, fuel is delivered to the fuel/air control unit on the bottom of the engine. The fuel/air control unit (fuel servo) meters fuel flow in proportion to induction air flow. Aer passing through the control unit, metered fuel goes to a fuel distribution valve (flow divider) located on the bottom of the engine. From the fuel distribution valve, individual fuel lines are routed to air bleed type injector nozzles located in the intake chamber of each cylinder.
FUEL INDICATING
Fuel quantity is measured by two float type fuel quantity transmitters (one in each tank) and indicated by an electrically operated fuel quantity indicator on the le side of the instrument panel. The gauges are marked in gallons of fuel. An empty tank is indicated by a red line and the number 0. When an indicator shows an empty tank, approximately 2.5 gallons remain in each tank as unusable fuel. The indicators should not be relied upon for accurate readings during skids, slips, or unusual attitudes.
Each fuel tank also incorporates warning circuits which can detect low fuel conditions and erroneous transmitter messages. Anytime fuel in the tank drops below approximately 8 gallons (and remains below this level for more than 60 seconds), the amber LOW FUEL message will flash on the annunciator panel for approximately 10 seconds and then remain steady amber. The annunciator cannot be turned o by the pilot. If the le tank is low, the message will read L LOW FUEL. If the right tank is low, the message will read LOW FUEL R. If both tanks are low, the message will read L LOW FUEL R.
In addition to low fuel annunciation, the warn­ing circuitry is designed to report failures with each transmitter caused by shorts, opens or transmitter resistance which increases over time. If the circuitry detects any one of these conditions, the fuel level indicator needle will go to the OFF position (below the 0 mark on the fuel indicator), and the amber annuncia­tor will illuminate. If the le tank transmitter has failed, the message will read L LOW FUEL. If the right tank transmitter has failed, the message will read LOW FUEL R. If both tanks transmitters have failed, the message will read L LOW FUEL R.
Fuel flow is measured by use of a fuel transducer (flowmeter). Normal operating (green arc) range is 0 to 18 gallons-per-hour with a step at 16 gallons-per-hour.
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AUXILIARY FUEL PUMP OPERATION
The auxiliary fuel pump is used primarily for priming the engine before starting. Priming is accomplished through the fuel injection system. The engine may be flooded if the auxiliary FUEL PUMP switch is accidentally placed in the ON position for prolonged periods, with MASTER Switch ON and mixture rich, with the engine stopped. The auxiliary fuel pump is also used for vapor suppression in hot weather. Normally, momentary use will be suicient for vapor suppres­sion; however, continuous operation is permissible if required. Turning on the auxiliary fuel pump with a normally operating engine driven fuel pump will result in only a very minor enrichment of the mixture.
It is not necessary to operate the auxiliary fuel pump during normal takeo and landing, since gravity and the engine driven fuel pump will supply adequate fuel flow. In the event of failure of the engine driven
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fuel pump, use of the auxiliary fuel pump will provide suicient fuel to maintain flight at maximum continu­ous power. Under hot day, high altitude conditions, or conditions during a climb that are conducive to fuel vapor formation, it may be necessary to utilize the auxiliary fuel pump to attain or stabilize the fuel flow required for the type of climb being performed. In this case, turn the auxiliary fuel pump on, and adjust the mixture to the desired fuel flow. If fluctuating fuel flow (greater than 1 GPH) is observed during climb or cruise at high altitudes on hot days, place the auxiliary fuel pump switch in the ON position to clear the fuel system of vapor. The auxiliary fuel pump may be operated continuously in cruise.
overboard vents protrude from the bottom surface of the wings behind the wing struts, slightly below the upper attach points of the struts. The fuel filler caps are vacuum vented; the fuel filler cap vents will open and allow air to enter the fuel tanks in case the overboard vents become blocked.
REDUCED TANK CAPACITY
The airplane may be serviced to a reduced capacity to permit heavier cabin loadings. This is accomplished by filling each tank to the bottom edge of the fuel filler indicator tab, thus giving a reduced fuel load of
32.0 gallons usable in each tank or to the line of holes located inside the filler indicator tab, thus giving a reduced fuel load of 37.0 gallons usable in each tank.
FUEL DRAIN VALVES
The fuel system is equipped with drain valves to pro­vide a means for the examination of fuel in the system for contamination and grade. The system should be examined before each flight and aer each refueling, by using the sampler cup provided to drain fuel from each wing tank sump and the fuel strainer sump. If any evidence of fuel contamination is found, it must be eliminated in accordance with the Preflight Inspection checklist. If takeo weight limitations for the next flight permit, the fuel tanks should be filled aer each flight to prevent condensation.
Engine Priming
The C182 Skylane isn’t fitted with a dedicated priming pump. Instead, to prime the engine, you use the fuel pump and the mixture control to add suicient fuel into the combustion chamber prior to engine start.
This is done by completing the following actions.
FUEL RETURN SYSTEM
A fuel return system was incorporated to improve engine operation during extended idle operation in hot weather environments. The major components of the system include an orifice fitting located in the top of the fuel servo, a dual stack fuel selector and a drain valve assembly. The system is designed to return fuel/ vapor back to the main fuel tanks at approximately
▶ Auxilliary Fuel Pump – ON. ▶ Mixture -- SET to FULL RICH (full forward) until
stable fuel flow is indicated (usually 3 to 5 sec­onds), then set to IDLE CUTOFF (full aft) position.
▶ Auxiliary Fuel Pump – OFF. ▶ If after these steps have been carried out, the
engine continues to fail to start, the Auxilliary
Fuel Pump can be used to assist startup. 7 GPH. The dual stack fuel selector ensures that fuel/ vapor returns only to the fuel tank that is selected as the feed tank. For example, if the fuel selector is posi­tioned to use fuel from the le fuel tank, the fuel return system is returning fuel/vapor to the le fuel tank only.
BRAKE SYSTEM
The airplane has a single-disc, hydraulically actuated brake on each main landing gear wheel. Each brake is connected, by a hydraulic line, to a master cylinder attached to each of the pilot’s rudder pedals. The
FUEL VENTING
Fuel system venting is essential to system operation. Complete blockage of the fuel venting system will result in decreasing fuel flow and eventual engine stop­page. The fuel venting system consists of an intercon­necting vent line between the fuel tanks and check valve equipped overboard vents in each fuel tank. The
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brakes are operated by applying pressure to the top of either the le (pilot’s) or right (copilot’s) set of rudder pedals, which are interconnected. When the airplane is parked, both main wheel brakes may be set by utilizing the parking brake which is operated by a handle under the le side of the instrument panel. To apply the parking brake, set the brakes with
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the rudder pedals, pull the handle a, and rotate it 90° down.
For maximum brake life, keep the brake system properly maintained, and minimize brake usage during taxi operations and landings.
With Accu-Sim, we increase the likelihood of hearing brake noise and squeals as the breaks age. Hearing the occasional squeal is normal, but if your breaks start making noise regularly, bring the plane into the maintenance hangar for a check.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM AND BATTERY
Accu-Sim installs an authentic period battery into a feature-rich electrical system, thanks to close consulta tion with our own on-sta electrical engineer and high time pilots. Batteries suer from reduced capacity as they age, have a limited output (34 amp hours), can overheat if you demand too much from them, and can even load up your entire system if you have a brand new, but dead battery on-line. (ever try to jump start a car with a dead battery and nothing happens? You have to disconnect the dead battery and try again, since the dead battery is stealing all the electricity). The physical laws governing electricity are inexorable as those which govern running water. Our latest and most sophisticated version of Accu-Sim accurately replicates those physical laws and permits you to see the electrical system at work, via the ammeter on your electrical panel and through sounds and behaviour of the various electrically driven systems.
Volts, amps, watts, what does this all mean?
Without getting too technical, the pilot in command must understand the basics of what is happening in the aircra’s electrical system and components. Volts X Amps = watts. If we use a water hose as an anal­ogy, volts would be the water pressure, amps would be the hose width, and watts would be the amount / rate of water coming out the end. You could have, for example, a 120 volt, 1 amp light bulb would be the same brightness as a 12 volt, 10 amp bulb. The high voltage system is sending high pressure down a small pipe, and the low voltage system is sending low
-
pressure down a large pipe, but each putting out the same amount of water (watts).
If you take a huge draw, for example running an electric engine starter, voltage will plummet as the bat­tery struggles to supply this current. Your Ammeter will show the current draw. However, play with your lights, pitot heat, etc. and watch how these little changes aect these systems. Remember, your electrical system has a battery and an engine driven electrical generator. The battery puts out about 24 volts, while the genera­tor puts out a little more (about 28 volts). This allows your generator to not only drive all of the systems, but charge the battery at the same time. Remember, your generator is powered by the engine speed, and it does not reach it’s full capacity until about 1,500 RPM. Watch your meters, and you will see and enjoy a genuine electrical system in action.
In addition, weather aects a battery’s performance. Fortunately, you can always visit your maintenance hangar for a quick charge or replacement. If you use your battery wisely and correctly, it will last a long time.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The airplane is equipped with a 28-volt direct current (DC) electrical system. A belt-driven 60 ampere or optional 95 ampere alternator powers the system. A 24-volt main storage battery is located in the tailcone of the airplane. The alternator and main battery are controlled through the MASTER switch found near the top of the pilot’s switch panel.
Power is supplied to most electrical circuits through two primary buses (ELECTRICAL BUS 1 and ELECTRICAL BUS 2), with an essential bus and a crossfeed bus connected between the two primary buses to support essential equipment.
The system is equipped with a secondary or standby battery located
between the firewall and the instrument panel. The STBY BATT switch controls power to or from the standby battery. The standby battery is available to supply power to the essential bus in the event that alternator and main battery power sources have both failed.
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The primary buses are supplied with power whenever the MASTER switch is turned on, and are not aected by starter or external power usage. Each primary bus is also connected to an avionics bus through a circuit breaker and the AVIONICS BUS 1 and BUS 2 switches. Each avionics bus is powered when the MASTER switch and the corresponding AVIONICS switch are in the ON position.
CAUTION: BOTH BUS 1 AND BUS 2 AVIONICS SWITCHES SHOULD BE TURNED OFF TO PREVENT ANY HARMFUL TRANSIENT VOLTAGE FROM DAMAGING THE AVIONICS EQUIPMENT PRIOR TO TURNING THE MASTER SWITCH ON OR OFF, STARTING THE ENGINE OR APPLYING AN EXTERNAL POWER SOURCE.
The airplane includes a power distribution module, located on the le forward side of the firewall, to house all the relays used in the airplane electrical system. The Alternator Control Unit (ACU), main battery current sensor, and the external power connector are also housed within the module.
ANNUNCIATOR PANEL
An annunciator panel (with integral toggle switch) is located above the avionics stack and provides caution (amber) and warning (red) messages for selected portions of the airplane systems. The annunciator is designed to flash messages for approximately 10 sec­onds to gain the attention of the pilot before changing to steady on. The annunciator panel cannot be turned o by the pilot.
Inputs to the annunciator come from each fuel transmitter, the low oil pressure switch, the vacuum transducers and the alternator control unit (ACU). Individual LED bulbs illuminate each message and may be replaced through the rear of the annunciator. Illumination intensity can be controlled by placing the toggle switch to either the DIM or DAY position.
The annunciator panel can be tested by turning the Master Switch On and holding the annunciator panel switch in the TST position. All amber and red messages will flash until the switch is released.
CAUTION: PRIOR TO TURNING THE MASTER SWITCH ON OR OFF, STARTING THE ENGINE OR APPLYING AN EXTERNAL POWER SOURCE, THE AVIONICS POWER SWITCH, LABELED AVIONICS POWER, SHOULD BE TURNED OFF TO PREVENT ANY HARMFUL TRANSIENT VOLTAGE FROM DAMAGING THE AVIONICS EQUIPMENT.
Normally, both sides of the master switch should be used simultaneously; however, the BAT side of the switch could be turned on separately to check equip­ment while on the ground. To check or use avionics equipment or radios while on the ground, the avionics power switch must also be turned on. The ALT side of the switch, when placed in the o position, removes the alternator from the electrical system. With this switch in the o position, the entire electrical load is placed on the battery. Continued operation with the alternator switch in the o position will reduce battery power low enough to open the battery contactor, remove power from the alternator field, and prevent alternator restart.
AVIONICS MASTER SWITCH
Electrical power for Avionics Bus 1 and Avionics Bus 2 is supplied through Primary Bus 2 and Primary Bus 1, respectively. A rocker switch, located between the primary and avionics buses, controls current flow to the avionics buses. Placing the rocker switch in the up (ON) position supplies power to both buses simultane­ously. Placing the switch in the down (OFF) position removes power from both buses. The switch is located on the lower le side of the instrument panel.
NOTE: On some aircra certified outside the United States, the avionics master switch may be split. They are aligned for independent operation of the buses.
NOTE: When the Master Switch is turned ON, some annunciators will flash for approximately 10 seconds before illuminating steadily. When the annunciator panel switch is toggled up and held in the TST position, all remaining lights will flash until the switch is released.
MASTER SWITCH
The master switch is a split rocker type switch labeled MASTER, and is ON in the up position and o in the down position. The right half of the switch, labeled BAT, controls all electrical power to the airplane. The le half, labeled ALT, controls the alternator.
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With the switch in the o position, no electrical power will be applied to the avionics equipment, regardless of the position of the master switch or the individual equipment switches. The avionics power switch should be placed in the OFF position prior to turning the master switch on or o, starting the engine, or applying an external power source.
Each avionics bus also incorporates a separate circuit breaker installed between the primary bus and the avionics master switch. In the event of an electrical malfunction, this breaker will trip and take the eected avionics bus o-line.
AMMETER
The ammeter/vacuum gauge is located on the lower le side of the instrument panel. It indicates the amount of current, in amperes, from the alternator to the battery or from the battery to the airplane electrical system. When the engine is operating and the master switch is turned on, the ammeter indicates the charging rate applied to the battery. In the event the alternator is not functioning or the electrical load exceeds the output of the alternator, the ammeter indicates the battery discharge rate.
LOW VOLTAGE ANNUNCIATION
The low voltage warning annunciator is incorporated in the annunciator panel and activates when voltage falls below 24.5 volts. If low voltage is detected, the red annunciation VOLTS will flash for approximately 10 seconds before illuminating steadily. The pilot cannot turn o the annunciator.
NOTE: Illumination of the low voltage annunciator and ammeter discharge indications may occur during low RPM conditions with an electrical load on the system, such as during a low RPM taxi. Under these conditions, the light will go out at higher RPM.
LIGHTING SYSTEMS
EXTERIOR LIGHTING
Exterior lighting consists of navigation lights on the wing tips and top of the rudder, a dual landing/taxi light configuration located in the le wing leading edge, a flashing beacon mounted on top of the vertical fin, and a strobe light on each wing tip. In addition, two courtesy lights are recessed into the lower surface of each wing and provide illumination for each cabin door area.
The exterior courtesy lights (and the rear cabin dome light) are turned on by pressing the rear cabin light switch. Pressing the rear cabin light switch again will extinguish the three lights. The remaining exterior lights are operated by breaker/switches located on the lower le instrument panel. To activate these lights, place switch in the UP position. To deactivate light, place in the DOWN position.
INTERIOR LIGHTING
Interior lighting is controlled by a combination of flood lighting, glareshield lighting, pedestal lighting, panel lighting, and radio lighting. Flood lighting is accom­plished using two lights in the front and a single dome light in the rear. All flood lights are contained in the overhead console, and are turned on and o with push type switches located near each light.
Glareshield lighting is accomplished using an LED light recessed into the glareshield. Pedestal lighting consists of hooded lights located above the fuel selec­tor. Panel lighting is accomplished using individual lights mounted in each instrument and gauge.
CABIN HEATING, VENTILATING AND DEFROSTING SYSTEM
The temperature and volume of airflow into the cabin can be regulated by manipulation of the push-pull CABIN HT and CABIN AIR controls. Both controls are the double-button locking type and permit intermedi­ate settings. For cabin ventilation, pull the CABIN AIR knob out.
To raise the air temperature, pull the CABIN HT knob out approximately  to  inch for a small amount of cabin heat. Additional heat is available by pulling the knob out farther; maximum heat is available with the CABIN HT knob pulled out and the CABIN AIR knob pushed full in. When no heat is desired in the cabin, the CABIN HT knob is pushed full in.
Front cabin heat and ventilating air is supplied by outlet holes spaced across a cabin manifold just forward of the pilot’s and copilot’s feet. Rear cabin heat and air is supplied by two ducts from the manifold, one extending down each side of the cabin to an outlet just a of the rudder pedals at floor level.
Windshield defrost air is also supplied by two ducts leading from the cabin manifold to defroster outlets near the lower edge of the windshield. Two knobs con­trol sliding valves in either defroster outlet to permit regulation of defroster airflow. Separate adjustable ventilators supply additional air; one near each upper corner of the windshield supplies air for the pilot and copilot, and two ventilators are available for the rear cabin area to supply air to the rear seat passengers. Additionally, there are ventilators located on the forward cabin sidewall area just below the windshield sill area.
PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM AND INSTRUMENTS
The pitot-static system supplies ram air pressure to the airspeed indicator and static pressure to the airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator and altimeter. The system is composed of a heated pitot tube mounted on the lower surface of the le wing, an external static port on the lower le side of the forward fuselage, and the associated plumbing necessary to connect
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the instruments to the sources. The heated pitot system consists of a heating element in the pitot tube, a 10-amp switch/breaker labeled PITOT HEAT, and associated wiring. The switch/breaker is located on the lower le side of the instrument panel. When the pitot heat switch is turned on, the element in the pitot tube is heated electrically to maintain proper operation in possible icing conditions. A static pressure alternate source valve is “located adjacent to the throttle, and can be used if the external static source is malfunction­ing. This valve supplies static pressure from inside the cabin instead of the external static port. If erroneous instrument readings are suspected due to water or ice in the pressure line going to the standard external static pressure source, the alternate static source valve should be pulled on. Pressures within the cabin will vary with open heater/vents and windows.
AIRSPEED INDICATOR
The airspeed indicator is calibrated in KIAS. It incor­porates a true airspeed window which allows true air­speed (ktas) to be read o the face of the dial. In addi­tion, the indicator incorporates a window at the twelve o’clock position. The window displays true airspeed, and the window at the twelve o’clock position displays pressure altitude overlayed with a temperature scale.
Limitation and range markings (in KIAS) include the white arc (41 to 100 KIAS), green arc (51 to 140 KIAS), yellow arc (140 to 175 KIAS), and a red line (175 KIAS). To find true airspeed, first determine pressure altitude and outside air temperature. Using this data, rotate the lower le knob until pressure altitude aligns with outside air temperature in the twelve o’clock window. True airspeed (corrected for pressure and temperature) can now be read in the lower window.
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
The vertical speed indicator depicts airplane rate of climb or descent in feet per minute. The pointer is actu­ated by atmospheric pressure changes resulting from changes of altitude as supplied by the static source.
ALTIMETER
Airplane altitude is depicted by a barometric type altimeter. A knob near the lower le portion of the indicator provides adjustment of the instrument’s barometric scale to the current altimeter setting.
VACUUM SYSTEM AND INSTRUMENTS
The vacuum system provides suction necessary to operate the attitude indicator and the directional indicator. The system consists of two engine-driven
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vacuum pumps, two pressure switches for measuring vacuum available through each pump, a vacuum relief valve, a vacuum system air filter, vacuum operated instruments, a suction gauge, low vacuum warning on the annunciator, and a manifold with check valves to allow for normal vacuum system operation if one of the vacuum pumps should fail.
ATTITUDE INDICATOR
The attitude indicator is a vacuum air-driven gyro that gives a visual indication of flight attitude. Bank attitude is presented by a pointer at the top of the indicator relative to the bank scale which has index marks at 10°, 20°, 30°, 60°, and 90° either side of the center mark. Pitch and roll attitudes are presented by a miniature airplane superimposed over a symbolic horizon area divided into two sections by a white horizon bar. The upper “blue sky” area and the lower “ground” area have pitch reference lines useful for pitch attitude control. A knob at the bottom of the instrument is provided for in-flight adjustment of the symbolic airplane to the horizon bar for a more accurate flight attitude indication.
DIRECTIONAL INDICATOR
The directional indicator is a vacuum air-driven gyro that displays airplane heading on a compass card in relation to a fixed simulated airplane image and index. The indicator will precess slightly over a period of time. Therefore, the compass card should be set with the magnetic compass just prior to takeo, and readjusted as required throughout the flight. A knob on the lower le edge of the instrument is used to adjust the compass card to correct for precession. A knob on the lower right edge of the instrument is used to move the heading bug.
VACUUM INDICATOR
The vacuum indicator is part of the vacuum/amp indicator, located on the lower le corner of the
instrument panel. It is calibrated in inches of mercury and indicates vacuum air available for operation of the attitude and directional indicators. The desired vacuum range is 4.5 to 5.5 inches of mercury. Normally, a vacuum reading out of this range may indicate a system malfunction or improper adjustment, and in this case, the indicators should not be considered reliable. However, due to lower atmospheric pressures at higher altitudes, the vacuum indicator may indicate as low as 4.5 in. Hg. at 15,000 feet and still be adequate for normal system operation.
LOW VACUUM ANNUNCIATION
Each engine-driven vacuum pump is plumbed to a common manifold, located forward of the firewall. From the tee, a single line runs into the cabin to operate the various vacuum system instruments. This tee contains check valves to prevent back flow into a pump if it fails. Transducers are located just upstream of the tee and measure vacuum output of each pump. If output of the le pump falls below 3.0 in. Hg., the amber L VAC message will flash on the annunciator panel for approximately 10 seconds before turning steady on. If output of the right pump falls below 3.0 in. Hg., the amber VAC R message will flash on the annunciator panel for approximately 10 seconds before turning steady on. If output of both pumps falls below
3.0 in. Hg., the amber L VAC R message will flash on the annunciator panel for approximately 10 seconds before turning steady on.
CLOCK / O.A.T. INDICATOR
An integrated clock / O.A.T. / voltmeter is installed in the upper le side of the instrument panel as standard equipment.
STALL WARNING SYSTEM
The airplane is equipped with a vane-type stall warning system consisting of an inlet in the leading edge of the le wing, which is electrically connected to a stall warning horn located in the headliner above the le cabin door. A 5-amp push-to-reset circuit breaker labeled WARN, on the le side of the circuit breaker panel, protects the stall warning system. The vane in the wing senses the change in airflow over the wing, and operates the warning horn at airspeeds between 5 and 10 knots above the stall in all configurations.
The airplane has a heated stall warning system, the vane and sensor unit in the wing leading edge is equipped with a heating element. The heated part of the system is operated by the PITOT HEAT switch, and is protected by the PITOT HEAT circuit breaker.
The stall warning system should be checked during the preflight inspection by momentarily turning on the MASTER switch and actuating the vane in the wing. The system is operational if the warning horn sounds as the vane is pushed upward.
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HIS SECTION CONTAINS FACTORY
recommended procedures for proper ground
T
handling and routine care and servicing of your airplane. It also identifies certain inspection and maintenance requirements which must be followed if your airplane is to retain that new plane performance and dependability. It is wise to follow a planned schedule of lubrication and preventive maintenance based on climatic and flying conditions encountered in your locality. Keep in touch with your local Cessna Service Station and take advantage of their knowledge and experience. Your Cessna Service Station knows your airplane and how to maintain it, and will remind you when lubrications and oil changes are necessary, as well as other seasonal and periodic services. The airplane should be regularly inspected and maintained in accordance with information found in the airplane maintenance manual and in company issued service bulletins and service newsletters. All service bulletins pertaining to the aircra by serial number should be accomplished and the airplane should receive repetitive and required inspections. Cessna does not condone modifications, whether by Supplemental Type Certificate or otherwise, unless these certificates are held and/or approved by Cessna. Other modifications may void warranties on the airplane since Cessna has no way of knowing the full eect on the overall airplane. Operation of an airplane that has been modified may be a risk to the occupants, and operating procedures and performance data set forth in the operating handbook may no longer be considered accurate for the modified airplane.
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FUEL CONTAMINATION
Fuel contamination is usually the result of foreign material present in the fuel system, and may consist of water, rust, sand, dirt, microbes or bacterial growth. In addition, additives that are not compatible with fuel or fuel system components can cause the fuel to become contaminated. Before each flight and aer each refueling, use a clear sampler cup and drain at least a cupful of fuel from each fuel tank drain location and from the fuel strainer quick drain valve to deter­mine if contaminants are present, and to ensure the airplane has been fueled with the proper grade of fuel. If contamination is detected, drain all fuel drain points including the fuel reservoir and fuel selector quick drain valves and then gently rock the wings and lower the tail to the ground to move any additional contaminants to the sampling points. Take repeated samples from all fuel drain points until all contamination has been removed. If, aer repeated sampling, evidence of contamination still exists, the airplane should not be flown. Tanks should be drained and system purged by qualified maintenance personnel. All evidence of contamination must be removed before further flight. If the airplane has been serviced with the improper fuel grade, defuel completely and refuel with the correct grade. Do not fly the airplane with contaminated or unapproved fuel. In addition, Owners/Operators who are not acquainted with a particular fixed base operator should be assured that the fuel supply has been checked for contamination and is properly filtered before allowing the airplane to be serviced. Fuel tanks should be kept full between flights, provided weight and balance considerations will permit, to reduce the possibility of water condensing on the walls of partially filled tanks. To further reduce the possibility of contaminated fuel, routine maintenance of the fuel system should be performed in accordance with the airplane Maintenance Manual. Only the proper fuel, as recommended in this handbook, should be used, and fuel additives should not be used unless approved by Cessna and the Federal Aviation Administration.
THE AIRFOIL: HOW A WING CREATES LIFT
Before you learn about how dierent propellers work, first you must understand the basics of the common airfoil, which is the reason why a wing creates li, and in this case, why a propeller creates thrust.
The Newton Theory
As the air travels across the airfoil’s upper and lower surfaces, li is created by shoving the air down with great force at its trailing edge, and to some degree, the Newtonian force of opposite and equal reaction apply.
What we do know (and what the pilot needs to know)
The airfoil is essentially an air diverter and the li is the reaction to the diverted air. Regardless of what role each theory plays, an airfoil’s li is dependent upon its shape, the speed at which it is traveling through the air, and its angle to the oncoming air (angle of attack).
Look at the cross section of a propeller blade.
Essentially, the same process creates li.
Below are some graphical representations of an
airfoil travelling though the air in various conditions:
LEVEL FLIGHT
A wing creating moderate li. Air vortices (lines) stay close to the wing.
The Bernoulli Theory
This has been the traditional theory of why an airfold creates li:
Look at the image to the right which shows you how the shape of an airfoil splits the oncoming air. The air above is forced to travel further than the air at the bottom, essentially stretching the air and creating a lower pressure, or vacuum. The wing is basically sucked up, into this lower pressure. The faster the speed, the greater the li.
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CLIMB
Wing creating significant li force. Air vortices still close to the wing.
WHAT IS A STALL?
In order for a wing to produce eicient li, the air must flow completely around the leading (front) edge of the wing, following the contours of the wing. At too large an angle of attack, the air cannot contour the wing. When this happens, the wing is in a “stall.”
Typically, stalls in aircra occur when an airplane loses too much airspeed to create a suicient amount of li. A typical stall exercise would be to put your aircra into a climb, cut the throttle, and try and maintain the climb as long as possible. You will have to gradually pull back harder on the stick to maintain your climb pitch and as speed decreases, the angle of attack increases. At some point, the angle of attack will become so great, that the wing will stall (the nose will drop).
STA LL
The angle of attack has become too large. The boundary layer vortices have separated from the top surface of the wing and the incoming flow no longer bends completely around the leading edge. The wing is stalled, not only creating little li, but significant drag.
Can a propeller stall?
What do you think? More on this below.
LIFT VS ANGLE OF ATTACK
Every airfoil has an optimum angle at which it attacks the air (called angle of attack, or AoA), where li is at it’s peak. The li typically starts when the wing is level, and increases until the wing reaches its optimum angle, lets say 15-25 degrees, then as it passes this point, the li drops o. Some wings have a gentle drop, others can actually be so harsh, as your angle of attack increases past this critical point, the li drops o like a cli. Once you are past this point of li and the angle is so high, the air is just being plowed around in circles, creating almost no li but plenty of drag. This is what you experience when you stall an aircra. The bueting or shaking of the aircra at this stall position is actually the turbulent air, created by your stalling wing, passing over your rear stabilizer, thus shaking the aircra. This shaking can sometimes become so violent, you can pop rivets and damage your airframe. You quickly learn to back o your stick (or yoke) when you feel those shudders approaching.
Notice in the diagram to the right, how the airfoil creates more li as the angle of attack increases. Ideally, your wing (or propeller) will spend most of it’s time moving along the le hand side of this curve, and avoid passing over the edge. A general aviation plane that comes to mind is the Piper Cherokee. An older version has what we call a “Hershy bar wing” because it is uniform from the root to the tip, just like an Hershy chocolate bar. Later, Piper introduced the tapered wing, which stalled more gradually, across the wing. The Hershy bar wing has an abrupt stall, whereas the tapered wing has a gentle stall.
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FROM STALL TO FULL POWER
With brakes on and idling, the angle at which the prop attacks the still air, especially closer to the propeller hub, is almost always too great for the prop to be creat­ing much li. The prop is mostly behaving like a brake as it slams it’s side into the air. In reality, the prop is creating very little li while the plane is not moving. This eect is known as prop stall, and is part of the Accu-Sim prop physics suite.
Once done with your power check, prepare for take­o. Once you begin your takeo run, you may notice the aircra starts to pull harder aer you start rolling forward. This is the propeller starting to get its proper “bite” into the air, as the propeller blades come out of their stalled, turbulent state and enter their comfort­able high li angles of attack it was designed for. There are also other good physics going on during all of these phases of flight, that we will just let you experience for the first time yourself.
A propeller is basically a wing except that instead of relying on incoming air for li, it is spinning around to create li, it is perpendicular to the ground, creating a backwards push of air, or thrust. Just remember, whether a propeller is a fixed pitch, variable pitch, or constant speed, it is always attacking a variable, incoming air, and lives within this li curve.
PROP OVERSPEED
With a constant-speed propeller, a power descent can be made without overspeeding the engine. The system compensates for the increased airspeed of the descent by increasing the propeller blade angles. If the descent is too rapid, or is being made from a high altitude, the maximum blade angle limit of the blades is not suf­ficient to hold the rpm constant. When this occurs, the rpm is responsive to any change in throttle setting.
Any overspeed will require a prop inspection. Any overspeed greater than 15% of redline (2760 rpm) will require that contact be made with the manufacturer (McCauley Propeller Systems) to determine the prop’s airworthiness.
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2D PANELS
The 2D panels are there to provide the extra functional­ity needed when there is so much additional informa­tion available to you, the pilot.
Each 2D panel is accessed by the key-press combina-
tion in parentheses aer the 2D panel title.
Pilot’s Notes (Shi 2)
▶ Outside Temp: is the ambient tem-
perature outside the aircraft.
▶ Watch Engine Temps: this warning will display
if your engine temperature is nearing danger limits. Corrective action should be carried out immediately if this warning appears.
▶ Cabin Temperature: displays how comfort-
able the temperature of the cabin feels.
▶ Ground Speed: this is your speed in relation
to the ground in miles/hour and knots.
▶ Endurance: this figure tells you approximately
how long you could remain in powered flight before running out of fuel. This figure will update throughout your flight, and as such you should take into account that during a climb phase, the endurance will be less than once the aircraft is settled in a cruise configuration.
▶ Range: given in statute (sm) and nautical miles
(nm), this figure will give you an approximation of your maximum range under current fuel consump­tion and airspeed conditions. Again, this figure will change depending on your flight phase.
▶ Fuel Economy: is the current fuel burn rate
given in gallons/hour (gph), miles/gallon (mpg) and nautical miles/gallon (nmpg).
▶ Power Settings: this represents your clip-
board, showing you important informa­tion for the correct settings for take off, climb and cruise configurations.
▶ Notes: these are a set of pages (accessed
by the small arrow to the right of the page number) that include information such as actions to be carried out when first enter­ing the cabin, to landing checks.
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Controls (Shi 3)
Initially designed to provide a means to perform vari­ous in cockpit actions whilst viewing the aircra from an external viewpoint, this control panel now provides quick access to a number of dierent commands.
From this panel, you can:
▶ Remove the pilot figure from the external
view (only available whilst the engine is not running). Note the visual change in the air­craft balance when you remove the pilot.
▶ Control electrical systems such as
the generator or magnetos.
▶ Toggle aircraft lighting, both internal and external. ▶ Change the GPS system installed in your aircraft,
from a bracket mounted handheld unit, to panel mounted units, or no GPS installed at all.
▶ Set whether you want the aircraft to already be
in a Cold and Dark state when you first enter it.
▶ Have your aircraft switch to a “Used” state,
where some aircraft components will imme­diately show signs of wear. Check your maintenance hangar before you go flying, so that you’re aware of the systems and compo­nents that you’ll need to keep an eye on.
▶ Turn Accusim damage on and off. ▶ Toggle between conventional DG and KI 525A HSI.
Payload and Fuel Manager (Shi 4)
The payload and fuel manager not only gives you an overview of your current payload, fuel and oil quanti­ties, it is also an interactive loading screen, where you can:
▶ Add and remove passengers and baggage. ▶ Increase or decrease pilot, pas-
senger and baggage weights.
▶ Add or remove oil in the reservoir, and change the
oil viscosity depending on seasonal changes.
▶ Add or remove fuel from the wing tanks. ▶ Change between viewing weights and
measures in imperial or metric format.
▶ View, at a glance, total aircraft weight, pay-
load weight, and total fuel quantities.
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Pilot’s Map (Shi 5)
The pilot’s map gives full and easy access to informa­tion that may be found on real maps, and allows this information to be accessed from the cockpit, as opposed to using the default map via the drop-down menus.
The accompanying panel to the map allows you to select what information you want to have displayed on the map, from a compass rose to low altitude airways.
Also note that some of the button selections have an increasing amount of information presented with each subsequent button press.
For example, the APT (Airport) button will show the following information:
APT 1: Airport ID.  APT 2: Airport name.  APT 3: Airport elevation.  APT 4: Airport radio frequencies.
Quick RAdios (Shi 6)
This small popup panel provides input for your virtual cockpit radios but in a simplified and easy to use manner. This popup features all the amenities of the actual radios but in a singular unit which allows you to control your communication, navigation, ADF and transponder radios from a single source.
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Maintenance Hangar (Shi 7)
The maintenance hangar is where you can review the cur­rent state of your aircra and its major systems. It is one of the core elements to visualizing Accusim at work.
With the invaluable assistance of your local aircra main­tenance engineer/technician, a.k.a “grease monkey”, you will be able to see a full and in-depth report stating the following:
▶ A summary of your airframe, engine
and propeller installed.
▶ Total airframe hours, and engine hours
since the last major overhaul.
▶ General condition of the engine. ▶ Important notes provided by the ground crew.
From the maintenance hangar, you can also carry out a complete overhaul, by clicking the COMPLETE OVERHAUL button in the bottom right corner. This will overhaul the engine and replace any parts that are showing signs of wear or damage, with new or re-conditioned parts.
In order to fix any issues the mechanic has flagged up, we need to inspect the engine in greater detail. By le clicking the “CHECK ENGINE” text on the engine cover, it will open the following window.
COLOUR CODES:
GREEN: OK
YELLOW: WATCH
RED: MUST FIX OR REPLACE
Heavy wear or a component failure will be shown in red, and these components must be replaced.
We can choose to continue flying with the worn compo­nents, but extra care should be used and a close eye kept on
those systems/components.
Any component with a yellow highlight is worn, but not
unserviceable, so do not have to be replaced.
Compression Test
At the lower right hand corner is a “COMPRESSION TEST” button, which will tell your mechanic to run a high pressure dierential compression test on the engine cylinders.
This is done by compressed air being applied through a regulator gauge to the tester in the cylinder. The gauge would show the total pressure being applied to the cylinder.
The compressed air would then pass through a calibrated restrictor and to the cylinder pressure gauge. This gauge would show the actual air pressure within the cylinder.
Any dierence in pressure between the two gauges would indicate a leak of air past the engine components, whether that is the valves, piston rings, or even a crack in the cylinder wall itself.
The readings that your mechanic presents to you in the “Compression Test Results” in the notes section, will be annotated with the actual amount of pressure read in the cylinder over the actual pressure that was applied to the cylinder through the regulator.
Low compression on a cylinder isn’t nec essarily a terrible thing, because as the en gine picks up in speed, the worn cylinder becomes productive. It is mostly noticed at lower R.P.M.’s where the cylinder may have trouble firing, and also a marked increase in oil consumption may also occur (sometimes with an accompanying blue smoke out of that cylinder during flight).
However, note that this is a reading of the general condition of the cylinders, and lower condition does bring additional risks of failure, or even engine fires.
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Pre-Flight Inspection (Shi 8)
The Pre-Flight Inspection is another advancement in bringing real life standard operating procedures into P3D.
The inspection system is done in such a way as to emulate making your walkaround inspection prior to flight.
There are 19 separate check sheets which are accessed by clicking the arrows in the bottom right corner of the aircra top-down view window.
As you select the next check sheet, you will auto­matically be moved to the relevant view around the aircra.
It’s not just a case of clicking the next check sheet over and over again however, as there are actions to be carried out and visual checks to be made in order to complete the pre-flight correctly. If you miss something, maybe the landing light lens cover on the leading edge is smashed, expect to be notified by your mechanic in the Maintenance Hangar, as his sharp eye will pick up anything you miss.
The checklist itself shows an overview of the aircra, with your walkaround route in black, and dots to highlight the areas where subsequent checks will be carried out.
The check list starts with actions to be carried out in
the cockpit, prior to your walkaround.
Ensure that the checklist is carried out correctly, as checks and actions missed here, will prevent you from carrying out the proper checks during your walkaround.
The first of the external checks covers the tail area. The checklist now has an additional bottom section in which specific actions can be carried out, or additional views can be accessed as a reference to what to look out for.
By le clicking on an action button, it will either perform an action, i.e. remove the tail tie down, or it will bring up a reference picture. In the example below, we’re looking at the elevator hinges.
As part of the walkaround, checking the fuel tank sump quick drain valves is an extremely important check. If water enters the engine, expect a brief interlude of coughing and spluttering, quickly followed by the sound of silence.
The oil dipstick is not only essential in gauging the total oil quantity, but also the condition of the oil. As you put hours on your engine, expect the oil to become darker due to suspended particulates that are too fine to be trapped by the filter. The oil also goes through chemical changes, which over time means that the oil isn’t as capable of protecting your engine as it was when new.
Pause Control (shi 9)
The pause controls are made available for those times when you need to be away from the simulation.
By le clicking the various boxes, you will turn that pause command on, and for the Altitude, Time and Distance boxes, a plus and minus arrow allow you to change the values for when the pause command will be issued.
If more than one box is switched on, the first trigger to be reached will pause the simulation.
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AIRPLANE HANDLING, SERVICE & MAINTENANCE
INPUT CONFIGURATOR
The Input Configurator allows users to assign keyboard or joystick mappings to many custom functions that can’t be found in P3D controls assignments
menu. It can be found in the A2A/C182/ Tools
folder inside your P3D installation directory.
The upper table is the axis assignment menu. From the drop down list, select joystick and axis you want to assign to each func­tion and verify its operation in the ‘preview’ column. Mark the ‘invert’ check box if needed. The lower table is the shortcuts menu. Hover over a function name to bring up a tooltip with additional information.
To make a new shortcut, double click on a selected row to bring up the assignment window. Then press keyboard key or joystick button you want to assign to this function. For keyboard it’s also possible to use modifier keys (Ctrl, Shi, Alt).
When done with the assignments, press “Save and update P3D” button. This will instantly update shortcuts for the aircra. There is no need to restart P3D or even reset your flight for the changes to take eect, you can adjust shortcuts on the fly.
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AIRCRAFT CONFIGURATOR
The Aircra Configurator for Accu-Sim C182 Skylane enables the user to choose from:
1. Various 3rd party GPS systems (RXP,
Flight 1, Mindstar, or Stock)
2. Runway illuminating lights or default lights.
Technically, this utility manages the panel.cfg and model.cfg files, so the user doesn’t need to manually edit these files.
While the GPS can be changed with or without a run­ning simulation (FSX or Prepar3D), the Landing Lights change takes eect in a next flight of the C182.
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ACCU-SIM AND THE C182 SKYLANE
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CCU-SIM IS A2A SIMULATIONS’ GROWING FLIGHT SIMULATION
engine, which is now connectable to other host simulations.
A
In this case, we have attached our Accu-Sim C182 Skylane to Lockheed Martin Prepar3D to provide the maximum amount of realism and immersion possible.
WHAT IS THE PHILOSOPHY BEHIND ACCU-SIM?
Pilots will tell you that no two aircra are the same. Even taking the same aircra up from the same airport to the same location will result in a dierent experience. For example, you may notice one day your engine is running a bit hotter than usual and you might just open your cowl flaps a bit more and be on your way, or maybe this is a sign of something more serious developing under the hood. Regardless, you expect these things to occur in a simulation just as they do in life. This is Accu-Sim, where no two flights are ever the same.
Realism does not mean having a diicult time with your flying. While Accu-Sim is created by pilots, it is built for everyone. This means everything from having a professional crew there to help you manage the systems, to an intuitive layout, or just the ability to turn the system on or o with a single switch. However, if Accu-Sim is enabled and the needles are in the red, there will be consequences. It is no longer just an aircra, it’s a simulation.
ACTIONS LEAD TO CONSEQUENCES
Your A2A Simulations Accu-Sim aircra is quite complete with full system modeling and flying an aircra such as this requires constant attention to the systems. The infinite changing conditions around you and your aircra have impact on these systems. As systems operate both inside and outside their limitations, they behave dierently. For example, the temperature of the air that enters your carburetor has a direct impact on the power your engine can produce. Pushing an engine too hard may produce just slight damage that you, as a pilot, may see as it just not running quite as good as it was on a previous flight. You may run an engine so hot, that it catches fire. However, it may not catch fire; it may just quit, or may not run smoothly. This is Accu-Sim – it’s both the realism of all of these systems working in harmony, and all the subtle, and sometimes not so subtle, unpredictability of it all. The end result is when flying in an Accu-Sim powered aircra, it just feels real enough that you can almost smell the avgas.
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ACCU-SIM AND THE C182 SKYLANE
YOUR AIRCRAFT TALKS
We have gone to great lengths to bring the internal physics of the airframe, engine, and systems to life. Now, when the engine coughs, you can hear it and see a pu of smoke. If you push the engine too hard, you can also hear signs that this is happening. Just like an actual pilot, you will get to know the sounds of your aircra, from the tires scrubbing on landing to the stresses of the airframe to the canopy that is cracked opened.
BE PREPARED – STAY OUT OF TROUBLE
The key to successfully operating almost any aircra is to stay ahead of the curve and on top of things. Aircra are not like automobiles, in the sense that weight plays a key role in the creation of every component. So, almost every system on your aircra is created to be just strong enough to give you, the pilot, enough margin of error to operate safely, but these margins are smaller than those you find in an automobile. So, piloting an aircra requires both precision and respect of the machine you are managing.
It is important that you always keep an eye on your oil pressure and engine temperature gauges. On cold engine starts, the oil is thick and until it reaches a proper operating temperature, this thick oil results in much higher than normal oil temperatures. In extreme cold, once the engine is started, watch that oil pressure gauge and idle the engine as low as possible, keeping the oil pressure under 120psi.
Key Things to Keep Engine Temperatures in Check
▶ Get off the ground as soon as possible. Prolonged
idling and taxiing can overheat your engine.
▶ Reduce power immediately after
takeoff to climb power
PERSISTENT AIRCRAFT
Every time you load up your Accu-Sim C182 Skylane, you will be flying the continuation of the last aircra which includes fuel, oil, coolant levels along with all of your system conditions. So be aware, no longer will your aircra load with full fuel every time, it will load with the same amount of fuel you le o when you quit your last flight. You will learn the easy or the hard way to make, at the very least, some basic checks on your systems before jumping in and taking o, just like a real aircra owner.
Additionally, in each flight things will sometimes be dierent. The gauges and systems will never be exactly the same. There are just too many moving parts, variables, changes, etc., that continuously alter the condition of the airplane, its engine and its systems.
NOTE: Signs of a damaged engine may be lower RPM (due to increased friction), or possibly hotter engine temperatures.
SOUNDS GENERATED BY PHYSICS
Lockheed Martin Prepar3D, like any piece of soware, has its limitations. Accu-Sim breaks this open by augmenting the sound system with our own, adding
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