User’s manual
FLIR Cx series
User’s manual
FLIR Cx series
#T559918; r. AA/20829/20829; en-US
iii
Table of contents
1 Disclaimers ........................... ................................. ............................1
1.1 Legal disclaimer ......................................................................... 1
1.2 Usage statistics ..........................................................................1
1.3 Changes to registry ..................................................................... 1
1.4 U.S. Government Regulations........................................................1
1.5 Copyright ..................................................................................1
1.6 Quality assurance .......................................................................1
1.7 Patents..................................................................................... 1
1.8 EULA Terms ..............................................................................1
1.9 EULA Terms ..............................................................................2
2 Safety information ......................... ................................. .....................3
3 Notice to user ............................ ............................... .. ........................6
3.1 User-to-user forums .................................................................... 6
3.2 Calibration.................................................................................6
3.3 Accuracy ..................................................................................6
3.4 Disposal of electronic waste..........................................................6
3.5 Training .................................................................................... 6
3.6 Documentation updates ...............................................................6
3.7 Important note about this manual....................................................6
4 Customer help ........................... ............................... .. ........................7
4.1 General .................................................................................... 7
4.2 Submitting a question .................................................................. 7
4.3 Downloads ................................................................................7
5 Quick Start Guide .................. .. ............................... .... .........................9
5.1 Procedure ................................................................................. 9
6 Description..................... ............................... .. ............................... .. 10
6.1 View from the front .................................................................... 10
6.2 View from the rear..................................................................... 10
6.3 Connector ............................................................................... 11
6.4 Screen elements ...................................................................... 11
6.5 Auto-orientation........................................................................ 11
6.6 Navigating the menu system ....................................................... 12
7 Operation ........................... ............................... .. ............................. 13
7.1 Charging the battery.................................................................. 13
7.2 Turning on and turning off the camera............................................ 13
7.3 Saving an image ....................................................................... 13
7.3.1 General........................................................................ 13
7.3.2 Image capacity .............................................................. 13
7.3.3 Naming convention......................................................... 13
7.3.4 Procedure .................................................................... 13
7.4 Recalling an image.................................................................... 13
7.4.1 General........................................................................ 13
7.4.2 Procedure .................................................................... 13
7.5 Deleting an image..................................................................... 14
7.5.1 General........................................................................ 14
7.5.2 Procedure .................................................................... 14
7.6 Deleting all images.................................................................... 14
7.6.1 General........................................................................ 14
7.6.2 Procedure .................................................................... 14
7.7 Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter ................................... 15
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7.7.1 General........................................................................ 15
7.8 Hiding measurement tools .......................................................... 15
7.8.1 Procedure .................................................................... 15
7.9 Changing the color palette .......................................................... 15
7.9.1 General........................................................................ 15
7.9.2 Procedure .................................................................... 15
7.10 Changing the image mode .......................................................... 15
7.10.1 General........................................................................ 15
7.10.2 Procedure .................................................................... 16
7.11 Changing the temperature scale mode .......................................... 17
7.11.1 General........................................................................ 17
7.11.2 When to use Lock mode .................................................. 17
7.11.3 Procedure .................................................................... 17
7.12 Setting the emissivity................................................................. 17
7.12.1 General........................................................................ 17
7.12.2 Procedure .................................................................... 18
7.13 Changing the reflected apparent temperature ................................. 18
7.13.1 General........................................................................ 18
7.13.2 Procedure .................................................................... 18
7.14 Performing a non-uniformity correction .......................................... 18
7.14.1 What is a non-uniformity correction?................................... 18
7.14.2 When to perform a non-uniformity correction ........................ 18
7.14.3 Procedure .................................................................... 19
7.15 Using the camera lamp .............................................................. 19
7.15.1 General........................................................................ 19
7.15.2 Procedure .................................................................... 19
7.16 Changing the settings ................................................................ 19
7.16.1 General........................................................................ 19
7.16.2 Procedure .................................................................... 20
7.17 Updating the camera ................................................................. 20
7.17.1 General........................................................................ 20
7.17.2 Procedure .................................................................... 20
8 Technical data ........................ .. .. ............................. .. .. ...................... 21
8.1 Online field-of-view calculator ...................................................... 21
8.2 Note about technical data ........................................................... 21
8.3 FLIR C2 .................................................................................. 22
9 Mechanical drawings ............................... .. .. ............................. .. .. ..... 25
10 Cleaning the camera......................... .. ............................... ................ 26
10.1 Camera housing, cables, and other items....................................... 26
10.1.1 Liquids......................................................................... 26
10.1.2 Equipment.................................................................... 26
10.1.3 Procedure .................................................................... 26
10.2 Infrared lens ............................................................................ 26
10.2.1 Liquids......................................................................... 26
10.2.2 Equipment.................................................................... 26
10.2.3 Procedure .................................................................... 26
11 Application examples.... ............................... .... ............................. .. .. . 27
11.1 Moisture & water damage ........................................................... 27
11.1.1 General........................................................................ 27
11.1.2 Figure.......................................................................... 27
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11.2 Faulty contact in socket .............................................................. 27
11.2.1 General........................................................................ 27
11.2.2 Figure.......................................................................... 28
11.3 Oxidized socket........................................................................ 28
11.3.1 General........................................................................ 28
11.3.2 Figure.......................................................................... 28
11.4 Insulation deficiencies................................................................ 29
11.4.1 General........................................................................ 29
11.4.2 Figure.......................................................................... 29
11.5 Draft ...................................................................................... 30
11.5.1 General........................................................................ 30
11.5.2 Figure.......................................................................... 30
12 About FLIR Systems ....................... ............................... .................... 32
12.1 More than just an infrared camera ................................................ 33
12.2 Sharing our knowledge .............................................................. 33
12.3 Supporting our customers........................................................... 34
12.4 A few images from our facilities .................................................... 34
13 Glossary .. ................................. .. .. ........................... .. .. .................... 35
14 Thermographic measurement techniques ............. .. ............................. 38
14.1 Introduction ............................................................................ 38
14.2 Emissivity................................................................................ 38
14.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample...................................... 38
14.3 Reflected apparent temperature ................................................... 41
14.4 Distance ................................................................................. 42
14.5 Relative humidity ...................................................................... 42
14.6 Other parameters...................................................................... 42
15 History of infrared technology...... .. .. ............................... .................... 43
16 Theory of thermography.. .. ............................... ................................. . 46
16.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 46
16.2 The electromagnetic spectrum..................................................... 46
16.3 Blackbody radiation................................................................... 46
16.3.1 Planck’s law .................................................................. 47
16.3.2 Wien’s displacement law.................................................. 48
16.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's law ................................................... 50
16.3.4 Non-blackbody emitters................................................... 50
16.4 Infrared semi-transparent materials............................................... 52
17 The measurement formula.................. ............................... .. ............... 54
18 Emissivity tables .. ................................. ............................... ............. 58
18.1 References.............................................................................. 58
18.2 Tables .................................................................................... 58
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1
Disclaimers
1.1 Legal disclaimer
All products manufactured by FLIR Systems are warranted against defective
materials and workmanship for a period of one (1) year from the delivery date
of the original purchase, provided such products have been under normal storage, use and serv ice, and in accordance with FLIR Systems instruction.
Uncooled handheld infrared cameras manufacturedby FLIR Systems are warranted against defective materials and workmanship for a period of two (2)
years from the delivery date of the original purchase, provided such products
have been under normal storage, use and service, and in accordance with
FLIR Systems instruction, and provided that the camera has been registered
within 60 days of original purchase.
Detectors for uncooled handheld infrared cameras manufactured by FLIR Systems are warranted against defective materials and workmanship for a period
of ten (10) years from the delivery date of the original purchase, provided such
products have been under normal storage, use and service, and in accordance
with FLIR Systems instruction, and provided that the camera has been registered within 60 days of original purchase.
Products which are not manufactured by FLIR Systems but includedin systems delivered by FLIR Systems to the original purchaser, carry the warranty, if
any, of the particular supplier only. FLIR Systems has no responsibility whatsoever for such products.
The warranty extends only to the original purchaser and is not transferable. It
is not applicable to anyproduct which has been subjected to misuse, neglect,
accident or abnormal conditions of operation. Expendable parts areexcluded
from the warranty.
In the case of a defect in a product covered by this warranty the product must
not be further used in order to prevent additional damage. The purchaser shall
promptly report any defect to FLIR Systems or this warranty will not apply.
FLIR Systems will, at its option, repair or replace any such defective product
free of charge if, upon inspection, it proves to be defective in material or workmanship and provided that it is returned to FLIR Systems within the said oneyear period.
FLIR Systems has no other obligation or liability for defects than those set forth
above.
No other warranty is expressed or implied. FLIR Systems specifically disclaims
the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particularpurpose.
FLIR Systems shall not be liable for any direct, indirect, special, incidental or
consequential loss or damage, whether based on contract, tort or any other legal theory.
This warranty shall be governed by Swedish law.
Any dispute, controversy or claim arising out of or in connection with this war-
ranty, shall be finally settled by arbitration in accordance with the Rules of the
Arbitration Institute of the StockholmChamber of Commerce. The place of arbitration shall be Stockholm. Thelanguage to be used in the arbitral proceedings shall be English.
1.2 Usage statistics
FLIR Systems reserves the right to gather anonymous usage statistics to help
maintain and improve the quality of our software and services.
1.3 Changes to registry
The registry entry HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet
\Control\Lsa\LmCompatibilityLevel will be automatically changed to level 2 if
the FLIR Camera Monitor servicedetects a FLIR camera connected to the
computer with a USB cable. The modification will onlybe executed if the camera device implements a remote network service that supports network logons.
1.4 U.S. Government Regulations
This product may be subject to U.S. Export Regulations. Please send any inquiries to exportquestions@flir.com.
1.5 Copyright
© 2014, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide. No parts of the software including source code may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed or
translated into any language or computer language in anyform or by any
means, electronic, magnetic, optical, manual or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of FLIR Systems.
The documentation must not, in whole or part, becopied, photocopied, reproduced, translated or transmitted to any electronic medium or machine readable form without prior consent, in writing, from FLIR Systems.
Names and marks appearing onthe products herein are either registered
trademarks or trademarks of FLIR Systems and/or its subsidiaries. All other
trademarks, trade names or company names referenced herein are used for
identification only and are the property of their respective owners.
1.6 Quality assurance
The Quality Management System under which these products aredeveloped
and manufactured has been certified in accordance with the ISO 9001
standard.
FLIR Systems is committed toa policy of continuous development; therefore
we reserve the right to make changes and improvements on any of the products without prior notice.
1.7 Patents
One or several of the following patents and/or design patentsmay apply to the
products and/or features. Additional pending patents and/or pending design
patents may also apply.
000279476-0001; 000439161; 000499579-0001; 000653423; 000726344;
000859020; 001106306-0001; 001707738; 001707746; 001707787;
001776519; 001954074; 002021543; 002058180; 002249953; 002531178;
0600574-8; 1144833; 1182246; 1182620; 1285345; 1299699; 1325808;
1336775; 1391114; 1402918; 1404291; 1411581; 1415075; 1421497;
1458284; 1678485; 1732314; 2106017; 2107799; 2381417; 3006596;
3006597; 466540; 483782; 484155; 4889913; 5177595; 60122153.2;
602004011681.5-08; 6707044; 68657; 7034300; 7110035; 7154093;
7157705; 7237946; 7312822; 7332716; 7336823; 7544944; 7667198;
7809258 B2; 7826736; 8,153,971; 8018649 B2; 8212210 B2; 8289372;
8354639 B2; 8384783; 8520970; 8565547; 8595689; 8599262; 8654239;
8680468; 8803093; D540838; D549758; D579475; D584755; D599,392;
D615,113; D664,580; D664,581; D665,004; D665,440; D677298; D710,424
S; DI6702302-9; DI6903617-9; DI7002221-6; DI7002891-5; DI7002892-3;
DI7005799-0; DM/057692; DM/061609; EP 2115696 B1; EP2315433; SE
0700240-5; US 8340414 B2; ZL 201330267619.5; ZL01823221.3;
ZL01823226.4; ZL02331553.9; ZL02331554.7; ZL200480034894.0;
ZL200530120994.2; ZL200610088759.5; ZL200630130114.4;
ZL200730151141.4; ZL200730339504.7; ZL200820105768.8;
ZL200830128581.2; ZL200880105236.4; ZL200880105769.2;
ZL200930190061.9; ZL201030176127.1; ZL201030176130.3;
ZL201030176157.2; ZL201030595931.3; ZL201130442354.9;
ZL201230471744.3; ZL201230620731.8.
1.8 EULA Terms
• Youhave acquired a device (“INFRARED CAMERA”) that includes software licensed by FLIR Systems AB from Microsoft Licensing, GP or its affiliates (“MS”). Those installed software products of MS origin, as well as
associated media, printed materials, and “online” or electronic documentation (“SOFTWARE”) are protected by international intellectual property
laws and treaties. The SOFTWARE is licensed, not sold. All rights
reserved.
• IF YOU DO NOT AGREE TO THIS END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
(“EULA”), DO NOT USE THE DEVICE OR COPY THE SOFTWARE. INSTEAD, PROMPTLY CONTACT FLIR Systems AB FOR INSTRUCTIONS
ON RETURN OF THE UNUSED DEVICE(S) FOR A REFUND. ANY USE
OF THE SOFTWARE, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO USE ON
THE DEVICE, WILL CONSTITUTE YOUR AGREEMENT TO THIS EULA (OR RATIFICATION OFANY PREVIOUS CONSENT).
• GRANT OF SOFTWARE LICENSE. This EULA grantsyou the following
license:
• Youmay use the SOFTWARE only on the DEVICE.
• NOT FAULT TOLERANT. THE SOFTWARE IS NOT FAULT TOLER-
ANT.FLIR Systems AB HAS INDEPENDENTLY DETERMINED
HOW TO USE THE SOFTWARE IN THE DEVICE, AND MS HAS
RELIED UPON FLIR Systems AB TO CONDUCT SUFFICIENT
TESTING TO DETERMINE THAT THE SOFTWARE IS SUITABLE
FOR SUCH USE.
• NO WARRANTIES FOR THE SOFTWARE. THE SOFTWARE is
provided “AS IS” and with all faults. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO SATISFACTORY QUALITY, PERFORMANCE, ACCURACY, AND EFFORT (INCLUDING LACK OF NEGLIGENCE) IS WITH YOU.
ALSO, THERE IS NO WARRANTYAGAINST INTERFERENCE
WITH YOUR ENJOYMENT OF THE SOFTWARE OR AGAINST INFRINGEMENT.IF YOU HAVE RECEIVED ANY WARRANTIES RE-
GARDING THE DEVICE OR THE SOFTWARE, THOSE
WARRANTIES DO NOT ORIGINATE FROM, AND ARE NOT
BINDING ON, MS.
• No Liability for Certain Damages.EXCEPT AS PROHIBITED BY
LAW,MS SHALL HAVE NO LIABILITY FOR ANY INDIRECT, SPECIAL, CONSEQUENTIAL OR INCIDENTALDAMAGES ARISING
FROM OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THE SOFTWARE. THIS LIMITATION SHALL APPLY
EVEN IF ANY REMEDY FAILS OF ITS ESSENTIAL PURPOSE. IN
NO EVENT SHALL MS BE LIABLE FOR ANY AMOUNT IN EXCESS OF U.S. TWO HUNDRED FIFTYDOLLARS (U.S.$250.00).
• Limitations on Reverse Engineering, Decompilation, and Dis-
assembly. You may not reverse engineer, decompile, or disassem-
ble the SOFTWARE, except and only tothe extent that such activity
is expressly permitted by applicable law notwithstanding this
limitation.
• SOFTWARE TRANSFER ALLOWED BUT WITH RESTRICTIONS.
Youmay permanently transfer rights under this EULA only as part of
a permanent sale or transfer of the Device, and only if the recipient
agrees to this EULA. If the SOFTWARE is an upgrade,any transfer
must also include all priorversions of the SOFTWARE.
• EXPORT RESTRICTIONS. You acknowledge that SOFTWARE is
subject to U.S. export jurisdiction. You agree to comply with all applicable international and national laws that apply to the SOFTWARE,
including the U.S. Export Administration Regulations, as well as
end-user, end-use and destination restrictions issued by U.S. and
other governments. For additional information see http://www.microsoft.com/exporting/.
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Disclaimers1
1.9 EULA Terms
Qt4 Core and Qt4 GUI,Copyright ©2013 Nokia Corporation and FLIR Systems AB. This Qt library is a free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
the Free Software Foundation; either version2.1 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. This library is distributed in the hope that it will be
useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITYor FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
GNU Lesser General Public License, http://www.gnu.org/licenses/lgpl-2.1.html.
The source code for thelibraries Qt4 Core and Qt4 GUI may be requested
from FLIR Systems AB.
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Safety information
WARNING
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not disassemble or do a modification to the battery. The battery contains safety and protection devices
which, if damage occurs, can cause the battery to become hot, or cause an explosion or an ignition.
WARNING
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
If there is a leak from the battery and you get the fluid in your eyes, do not rub your eyes. Flush well with
water and immediately get medical care. The battery fluid can cause injury to your eyes if you do not do
this.
WARNING
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not continue to charge the battery if it does not become charged in the specified charging time. If you
continue to charge the battery, it can become hot and cause an explosion or ignition. Injury to persons
can occur.
WARNING
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Only use the correct equipment to remove the electrical power from the battery. If you do not use the correct equipment, you can decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery. If you do not use the
correct equipment, an incorrect flow of current to the battery can occur. This can cause the battery to become hot, or cause an explosion. Injury to persons can occur.
WARNING
Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on containers before you use a liquid. The liquids can be dangerous. Injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Do not point the infrared camera (with or without the lens cover) at strong energy sources, for example,
devices that cause laser radiation, or the sun. This can have an unwanted effect on the accuracy of the
camera. It can also cause damage to the detector in the camera.
CAUTION
Do not use the camera in temperatures more than +50°C (+122°F), unless other information is specified
in the user documentation or technical data. High temperatures can cause damage to the camera.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not attach the batteries directly to a car’s cigarette lighter socket, unless FLIR Systems supplies a specific adapter to connect the batteries to a cigarette lighter socket. Damage to the batteries can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not connect the positive terminal and the negative terminal of the battery to each other with a metal
object (such as wire). Damage to the batteries can occur.
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Safety information
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not get water or salt water on the battery, or permit the battery to become wet. Damage to the batteries
can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not make holes in the battery with objects. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not hit the battery with a hammer. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not put your foot on the battery, hit it or cause shocks to it. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not put the batteries in or near a fire, or into direct sunlight. When the battery becomes hot, the built-in
safety equipment becomes energized and can stop the battery charging procedure. If the battery becomes hot, damage can occur to the safety equipment and this can cause more heat, damage or ignition
of the battery.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not put the battery on a fire or increase the temperature of the battery with heat. Damage to the battery
and injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not put the battery on or near fires, stoves, or other high-temperature locations. Damage to the battery
and injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not solder directly onto the battery. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not use the battery if, when you use, charge, or put the battery in storage, there is an unusual smell
from the battery, the battery feels hot, changes color, changes shape, or is in an unusual condition. Speak
with your sales office if one or more of these problems occurs. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur.
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Safety information
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Only use a specified battery charger when you charge the battery. Damage to the battery can occur if you
do not do this.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
The temperature range through which you can charge the battery is ±0°C to +45°C (+32°F to +113°F),
unless other information is specified in the user documentation or technical data. If you charge the battery
at temperatures out of this range, it can cause the battery to become hot or to break. It can also decrease
the performance or the life cycle of the battery.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
The temperature range through which you can remove the electrical power from the battery is -15°C to
+50°C (+5°F to +122°F), unless other information is specified in the user documentation or technical data.
If you operate the battery out of this temperature range, it can decrease the performance or the life cycle
of the battery.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
When the battery is worn, apply insulation to the terminals with adhesive tape or equivalent materials before you discard it. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur if you do not do this.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install it. Damage to the battery can occur if you
do not do this.
CAUTION
Do not apply solvents or equivalent liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Be careful when you clean the infrared lens. The lens has an anti-reflective coating which is easily damaged. Damage to the infrared lens can occur.
CAUTION
Do not use too much force to clean the infrared lens. This can cause damage to the anti-reflective
coating.
Note
The encapsulation rating is only applicable when all the openings on the camera are sealed with their
correct covers, hatches, or caps. This includes the compartments for data storage, batteries, and
connectors.
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Notice to user
3.1 User-to-user forums
Exchange ideas, problems, and infrared solutions with fellow thermographers around the
world in our user-to-user forums. To go to the forums, visit:
http://www.infraredtraining.com/community/boards/
3.2 Calibration
We recommend that you send in the camera for calibration once a year. Contact your local
sales office for instructions on where to send the camera.
3.3 Accuracy
For very accurate results, we recommend that you wait 5 minutes after you have started
the camera before measuring a temperature.
3.4 Disposal of electronic waste
As with most electronic products, this equipment must be disposed of in an environmentally friendly way, and in accordance with existing regulations for electronic waste.
Please contact your FLIR Systems representative for more details.
3.5 Training
To read about infrared training, visit:
• http://www.infraredtraining.com
• http://www.irtraining.com
• http://www.irtraining.eu
3.6 Documentation updates
Our manuals are updated several times per year, and we also issue product-critical notifications of changes on a regular basis.
To access the latest manuals and notifications, go to the Download tab at:
http://support.flir.com
It only takes a few minutes to register online. In the download area you will also find the lat-
est releases of manuals for our other products, as well as manuals for our historical and
obsolete products.
3.7 Important note about this manual
FLIR Systems issues generic manuals that cover several cameras within a model line.
This means that this manual may contain descriptions and explanations that do not apply
to your particular camera model.
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Customer help
4.1 General
For customer help, visit:
http://support.flir.com
4.2 Submitting a question
To submit a question to the customer help team, you must be a registered user. It only
takes a few minutes to register online. If you only want to search the knowledgebase for
existing questions and answers, you do not need to be a registered user.
When you want to submit a question, make sure that you have the following information to
hand:
• The camera model
• The camera serial number
• The communication protocol, or method, between the camera and your device (for example, HDMI, Ethernet, USB, or FireWire)
• Device type (PC/Mac/iPhone/iPad/Android device, etc.)
• Version of any programs from FLIR Systems
• Full name, publication number, and revision number of the manual
4.3 Downloads
On the customer help site you can also download the following:
• Firmware updates for your infrared camera.
• Program updates for your PC/Mac software.
• Freeware and evaluation versions of PC/Mac software.
• User documentation for current, obsolete, and historical products.
• Mechanical drawings (in *.dxf and *.pdf format).
• Cad data models (in *.stp format).
• Application stories.
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Customer help
• Technical datasheets.
• Product catalogs.
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5
Quick Start Guide
5.1 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Charge the battery for approximately 1.5 hours, using the FLIR power supply.
2. Push the On/off button
3. Aim the camera toward your target of interest.
4. Push the Save button to save an image.
(Optional steps)
5. Install FLIR Tools on your computer.
6. Start FLIR Tools.
7. Connect the camera to your computer, using the USB cable.
8. Import the images into FLIR Tools.
9. Create a PDF report in FLIR Tools.
to turn on the camera.
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6
Description
6.1 View from the front
1. Camera lamp.
2. Digital camera lens.
3. Infrared lens.
4. Attachment point.
6.2 View from the rear
1. On/off button.
2. Save button.
3. Camera screen.
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Description6
6.3 Connector
The purpose of this USB Micro-B connector is the following:
• Charging the battery using the FLIR power supply.
• Moving images from the camera to a computer for further analysis in FLIR Tools.
Note
Install FLIR Tools on your computer before you move the images.
6.4 Screen elements
1. Main menu toolbar.
2. Submenu toolbar.
3. Result table.
4. Status icons.
5. Temperature scale.
6. Spotmeter.
6.5 Auto-orientation
The camera has an auto-orientation feature, which means that the camera automatically
adjusts the measurement information on the display to the vertical or horizontal position of
the camera.
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Description6
Note
The auto-orientation feature is enabled by a setting. Select Settings > Device settings > Auto orientation
> On.
6.6 Navigating the menu system
The camera has a touch screen. You can use your index finger or a stylus pen specially
designed for capacitive touch usage to navigate the menu system.
Tap the camera screen to bring up the menu system.
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Operation
7.1 Charging the battery
Follow this procedure:
1. Connect the FLIR power supply to a wall outlet.
2. Connect the power supply cable to the USB connector on the camera.
7.2 Turning on and turning off the camera
• Push the On/off button
• Push and hold the On/off button
standby mode. The camera then automatically turns off after 48 hours.
• Push and hold the On/off button
camera.
7.3 Saving an image
7.3.1 General
You can save images to the internal camera memory.
The camera saves both a thermal image and a visual image at the same time.
to turn on the camera.
for less than 5 seconds to put the camera in
for more than 10 seconds to turn off the
7.3.2 Image capacity
Approximately 500 images can be saved to the internal camera memory.
7.3.3 Naming convention
The naming convention for images is FLIRxxxx.jpg, where xxxx is a unique counter.
7.3.4 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. To save an image, push the Save button.
7.4 Recalling an image
7.4.1 General
When you save an image, it is stored in the internal camera memory. To display the image
again, you can recall it from the internal camera memory.
7.4.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Images
3. To view the previous or next image, do one of the following:
• Swipe left or right.
. This displays an image in the image archive.
• Tap the left arrow
4. To switch between a thermal image and a visual image, swipe up or down.
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Operation
5. Tap the camera screen. This displays a toolbar.
• Select Full screen
or Exit full screen to switch between the full screen and
normal views.
• Select Thumbnails
to display the thumbnail overview. To scroll between the
thumbnails, swipe up/down. To display an image, tap its thumbnail.
• Select Delete
• Select Information
• Select Camera
to delete the image.
to display information about the image.
to return to live mode.
7.5 Deleting an image
7.5.1 General
You can delete an image from the internal camera memory.
7.5.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Images
. This displays an image in the image archive.
3. To display the previous or next image, do one of the following:
• Swipe left or right.
• Tap the left arrow
or the right arrow .
4. When the image you want to delete is displayed, tap the camera screen. This displays
a toolbar.
5. On the toolbar, select Delete
. This displays a dialog box.
6. In the dialog box, select Delete.
7. To return to live mode, tap the camera screen and select Camera
.
7.6 Deleting all images
7.6.1 General
You can delete all images from the internal camera memory.
7.6.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Settings
. This displays a dialog box.
3. In the dialog box, select Device settings. This displays a dialog box.
4. In the dialog box, select Reset options. This displays a dialog box.
5. In the dialog box, select Delete all saved images. This displays a dialog box.
6. In the dialog box, select Delete.
7. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow
repeatedly.
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Operation
7.7 Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter
7.7.1 General
You can measure a temperature using a spotmeter. This will display the temperature at the
position of the spotmeter on the screen.
7.7.1.1 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Measurement
3. On the submenu toolbar, select Center spot
. This displays a submenu toolbar.
.
The temperature at the position of the spotmeter will now be displayed in the top left
corner of the screen.
7.8 Hiding measurement tools
7.8.1 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Measurement
3. On the submenu toolbar, select No measurements
. This displays a submenu toolbar.
.
7.9 Changing the color palette
7.9.1 General
You can change the color palette that the camera uses to display different temperatures. A
different palette can make it easier to analyze an image.
7.9.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Color
. This displays a submenu toolbar.
3. On the submenu toolbar, select the type of color palette:
• Iron.
• Rainbow.
• Rainbow HC.
• Gray.
7.10 Changing the image mode
7.10.1 General
The camera captures both thermal and visual images at the same time. By your choice of
image mode, you select which type of image to display on the screen.
The camera supports the following image modes:
• Thermal MSX (Multi Spectral Dynamic Imaging): The camera displays an infrared image where the edges of the objects are enhanced with visual image details.
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Operation
• Thermal: The camera displays a fully infrared image.
• Digital camera: The camera displays only the visual image captured by the digital
camera.
To display a good fusion image (Thermal MSX mode), the camera must make adjustments
to compensate for the small difference in position between the digital camera lens and the
infrared lens. To adjust the image accurately, the camera requires the alignment distance
(i.e., the distance to the object).
7.10.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Image mode
. This displays a submenu toolbar.
3. On the submenu toolbar, select one of the following:
• Thermal MSX
.
• Thermal
• Digital camera
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Operation
4. If you have selected the Thermal MSX mode, also set the distance to the object by
doing the following:
• On the submenu toolbar, select Alignment distance
. This displays a dialog box.
• In the dialog box, select the distance to the object.
7.11 Changing the temperature scale mode
7.11.1 General
The camera can operate in two different temperature scale modes:
• Auto mode: In this mode, the camera is continuously auto-adjusted for the best image
brightness and contrast.
• Lock mode: In this mode, the camera locks the temperature span and the temperature
level.
7.11.2 When to use Lock mode
A typical situation where you would use Lock mode is when looking for temperature
anomalies in two items with a similar design or construction.
For example, you have two cables, and you suspect that one is overheated. With the camera in Auto mode, direct the camera toward the cable that has a normal temperature, and
then activate Lock mode. When you then direct the camera, in Lock mode, toward the suspected overheated cable, that cable will appear in a lighter color in the thermal image if its
temperature is higher than the first cable.
If you instead use Auto mode, the color for the two items might appear the same despite
their temperature being different.
7.11.3 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Color
3. On the submenu toolbar, select Auto/Lock
. This displays a submenu toolbar.
to toggle between Auto and Lock
modes:
• Auto mode is active when the icon is displayed with a gray indicator.
• Lock mode is active when the icon is displayed with a blue indicator.
7.12 Setting the emissivity
7.12.1 General
To measure temperatures accurately, the camera must be aware of the type of surface you
are measuring. You can choose between the following surface properties:
• Matt.
• Semi-matt.
• Semi-glossy.
As an alternative, you can set a custom emissivity value.
For more information about emissivity, see section 14 Thermographic measurement tech-
niques, page 38.
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Operation
7.12.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Settings
. This displays a dialog box.
3. In the dialog box, select Measurement parameters. This displays a dialog box.
4. In the dialog box, select Emissivity. This displays a dialog box.
5. In the dialog box, select one of the following:
• Matt.
• Semi-matt.
• Semi-glossy.
• Custom value. This displays a dialog box where you can set a value.
6. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow
repeatedly.
7.13 Changing the reflected apparent temperature
7.13.1 General
This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected by the object. If the emissivity is low and the object temperature significantly different from that of the reflected temperature, it will be important to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature
correctly.
For more information about the reflected apparent temperature, see section 14 Thermo-
graphic measurement techniques, page 38.
7.13.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Settings
. This displays a dialog box.
3. In the dialog box, select Measurement parameters. This displays a dialog box.
4. In the dialog box, select Reflected apparent temperature. This displays a dialog box
where you can set a value.
5. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow
repeatedly.
7.14 Performing a non-uniformity correction
7.14.1 What is a non-uniformity correction?
A non-uniformity correction (or NUC) is an image correction carried out by the camera
software to compensate for different sensitivities of detector elements and other optical
and geometrical disturbances
1
.
7.14.2 When to perform a non-uniformity correction
The non-uniformity correction process should be carried out whenever the output image
becomes spatially noisy. The output can become spatially noisy when the ambient temperature changes (such as from indoors to outdoors operation, and vice versa).
1. Definition from the imminent international adoption of DIN 54190-3 (Non-destructive testing – Thermographic
testing – Part 3: Terms and definitions).
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Operation
7.14.3 Procedure
To perform a non-uniformity correction, tap and hold the FLIR logo
than 2 seconds.
7.15 Using the camera lamp
7.15.1 General
You can use the camera lamp as a flashlight.
7.15.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Lamp
to toggle between camera lamp on and off:
• The lamp is turned off when the icon is displayed with a gray indicator.
• The lamp is turned on when the icon is displayed with a blue indicator.
7.16 Changing the settings
7.16.1 General
You can change a variety of settings for the camera.
The Settings menu includes the following:
• Measurement parameters.
• Save options.
• Device settings.
for more
7.16.1.1 Measurement parameters
• Emissivity.
• Reflected temperature.
7.16.1.2 Save options
• Photo as separate JPEG: When this menu command is selected, the digital photograph
from the visual camera is saved at its full field of view as a separate JPEG image. It
may be necessary to activate this option if you are not using the FLIR Tools software.
7.16.1.3 Device settings
• Language, time & units:
• Language.
• Temperature unit.
• Distance unit.
• Date & time.
• Date & time format.
• Reset options:
• Reset default camera mode.
• Reset device settings to factory default.
• Delete all saved images.
• Auto power off.
• Auto orientation.
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Operation
• Display intensity.
• Camera information: This menu command displays various items of information about
the camera, such as the model, serial number, and software version.
7.16.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Settings
. This displays a dialog box.
3. In the dialog box, tap the setting that you want to change.
4. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow repeatedly.
7.17 Updating the camera
7.17.1 General
To take advantage of our latest camera firmware, it is important that you keep your camera
updated. You update your camera using FLIR Tools.
7.17.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Start FLIR Tools.
2. Start the camera.
3. Connect the camera to the computer using the USB cable.
4. On the Help menu in FLIR Tools, click Check for updates.
5. Follow the on-screen instructions.
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Technical data
8.1 Online field-of-view calculator
Please visit http://support.flir.com and click the FLIR Cx camera for field-of-view tables for
all lens–camera combinations in this camera series.
8.2 Note about technical data
FLIR Systems reserves the right to change specifications at any time without prior notice.
Please check http://support.flir.com for latest changes.
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Technical data8
8.3 FLIR C2
P/N: 72001-0101
Rev.: 19634
Imaging and optical data
IR resolution 80 × 60 pixels
NETD 100 mK
Field of view
Minimum focus distance
Focal length 1.54 mm (0.061 in.)
Spatial resolution (IFOV)
F-number 1.1
Image frequency 9 Hz
Focus Focus free
45° × 34°
• Thermal: 0.15 m (0.49 ft.)
• MSX: 0.3 m (1 ft.)
11 mrad
Detector data
Focal Plane Array Uncooled microbolometer
Spectral range
Detector pitch 17 µm
IR sensor size 80 × 60
Image presentation
Display (color)
Display, aspect ratio 4:3
Auto orientation Yes
Touch screen Yes, capacitive
Image adjustment (alignment calibration) Yes
Image presentation modes
Infrared image Yes
Visual image Yes
MSX Yes
Gallery
Measurement
Object temperature range –10°C to +150°C (14 to 302°F)
Accuracy
8–14 µm
• 3.0 in.
• 320 × 240 pixels
Yes
±2°C (±3.6°F) or 2%, whichever is greater, at 25°C
(77°F) nominal.
Measurement analysis
Spotmeter On/off
Emissivity correction Yes; matt/semi/glossy + user set
Measurments correction
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• Reflected apparent temperature
• Emissivity
22
Technical data8
Set-up
Color palettes
Set-up commands Local adaptation of units, language, date and time
Languages 22
Lamp
Output power
Field of view
Service functions
Camera software update Using FLIR Tools
Storage of images
Storage media Internal memory store at least 500 sets of images
Image file format
• Gray
• Iron
• Rainbow
• Rainbow HC
formats
0.85 W
60°
• Standard JPEG
• 14-bit measurement data included
Video streaming
Non-radiometric IR-video streaming Yes
Visual video streaming Yes
Digital camera
Digital camera 640 × 480 pixels
Digital camera, focus Fixed focus
Digital camera, FOV
Data communication interfaces
USB, connector type USB Micro-B: Data transfer to and from PC, iOS
USB, standard USB 2.0
Power system
Battery type Rechargeable Li-ion polymer battery
Battery voltage 3.7 V
Battery operating time 2 h
Charging system Charged inside the camera
Charging time
External power operation
Power management Automatic shut-down
55° × 42° ±2°
and Android
1.5 h
• AC adapter, 90–260 VAC input
• 5 V output to camera
Environmental data
Operating temperature range –10°C to +50°C (14 to 122°F)
Storage temperature range –40°C to +70°C (–40 to 158°F)
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Technical data8
Environmental data
Humidity (operating and storage) IEC 60068-2-30/24 h 95% relative humidity +25°C
Relative humidity 95% relative humidity +25°C to +40°C (+77°F to
EMC
Magnetic fields EN 61000-4-8
Battery regulations UL 1642
Encapsulation Camera housing and lens: IP 40 (IEC 60529)
Bump
Vibration
Drop 1.5 m (4.9 ft.)
Safety CE/PSE/EN/UL/CSA 60950-1
to +40°C (+77°F to +104°F) / 2 cycles
+104°F) non condensing
• WEEE 2012/19/EC
• RoHs 2011/65/EC
• C-Tick
• EN 61000-6-3
• EN 61000-6-2
• FCC 47 CFR Part 15 Class B
25 g (IEC 60068-2-29)
2 g (IEC 60068-2-6)
Physical data
Weight (incl. Battery) 0.13 kg (0.29 lb.)
Battery weight 0.018 kg (0.040 lb.)
Size (L × W × H) 125 × 80 × 24 mm (4.9 × 3.1 × 0.94 in.)
Tripod mounting No
Housing material
Color
Shipping information
Packaging, type Cardboard box
Packaging, contents
• Infrared camera
• Battery (inside camera)
• Lanyard
• Power supply/charger with EU, UK, US, CN and Australian plugs
• Printed Getting Started Guide
• USB memory stick with documentation
• USB cable
Packaging, weight
Packaging, size
EAN-13 4743254001961
UPC-12
Country of origin
• PC and ABS, partially covered with TPE
• Aluminum
Black and gray
845188010614
Estonia
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24
4,9
124,5
mm
3,1
78,7
mm
1,02
25,9
mm
Optical axis
1,78
45,3
mm
0,43
11
mm
1,31
33,4
mm
0,91
23,1
mm
0,58
14,8
mm
Camera with build-in IR lens f=1,54mm
Horisontal fov 46°
Vertical fov 35,3°
Diagonal fov 55,9°
Visual Optical axis
IR Optical axis
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 632 54
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
F
C
E
G
D
A
B
-
Scale
1:1
A
Size
Modified
R&D Thermography
KAMA
Basic Dimensions Flir Cx
T128439
1(1)
A2
Denomination
Drawn by
Check
Size
Drawing No.
Sheet
7
© 2012, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide. No part of this drawing may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without written permission from FLIR Systems, Inc. Specifications subject to change without further notice. Dimensional data is based on nominal values. Products may be subject to regional market considerations. License procedures may apply.
Product may be subject to US Export Regulations. Please refer to exportquestions@flir.com with any questions. Diversion contrary to US law is prohibited.
2014-10-14
10
Cleaning the camera
10.1 Camera housing, cables, and other items
10.1.1 Liquids
Use one of these liquids:
• Warm water
• A weak detergent solution
10.1.2 Equipment
A soft cloth
10.1.3 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Soak the cloth in the liquid.
2. Twist the cloth to remove excess liquid.
3. Clean the part with the cloth.
CAUTION
Do not apply solvents or similar liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. This can cause damage.
10.2 Infrared lens
10.2.1 Liquids
Use one of these liquids:
• A commercial lens cleaning liquid with more than 30% isopropyl alcohol.
• 96% ethyl alcohol (C
10.2.2 Equipment
Cotton wool
10.2.3 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Soak the cotton wool in the liquid.
2. Twist the cotton wool to remove excess liquid.
3. Clean the lens one time only and discard the cotton wool.
WARNING
Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on containers before you use a liquid: the liquids can be dangerous.
CAUTION
2H5
OH).
• Be careful when you clean the infrared lens. The lens has a delicate anti-reflective coating.
• Do not clean the infrared lens too vigorously. This can damage the anti-reflective coating.
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Application examples
11.1 Moisture & water damage
11.1.1 General
It is often possible to detect moisture and water damage in a house by using an infrared
camera. This is partly because the damaged area has a different heat conduction property
and partly because it has a different thermal capacity to store heat than the surrounding
material.
Note
Many factors can come into play as to how moisture or water damage will appear in an infrared image.
For example, heating and cooling of these parts takes place at different rates depending on the material
and the time of day. For this reason, it is important that other methods are used as well to check for moisture or water damage.
11.1.2 Figure
The image below shows extensive water damage on an external wall where the water has
penetrated the outer facing because of an incorrectly installed window ledge.
11.2 Faulty contact in socket
11.2.1 General
Depending on the type of connection a socket has, an improperly connected wire can result in local temperature increase. This temperature increase is caused by the reduced
contact area between the connection point of the incoming wire and the socket , and can
result in an electrical fire.
Note
A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another. For this reason, different faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared image.
Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between wire and socket, or from difference in load.
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Application examples11
11.2.2 Figure
The image below shows a connection of a cable to a socket where improper contact in the
connection has resulted in local temperature increase.
11.3 Oxidized socket
11.3.1 General
Depending on the type of socket and the environment in which the socket is installed, oxides may occur on the socket's contact surfaces. These oxides can lead to locally increased resistance when the socket is loaded, which can be seen in an infrared image as
local temperature increase.
Note
A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another. For this reason, different faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared image.
Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between a wire and socket, or from difference in load.
11.3.2 Figure
The image below shows a series of fuses where one fuse has a raised temperature on the
contact surfaces against the fuse holder. Because of the fuse holder’s blank metal, the
temperature increase is not visible there, while it is visible on the fuse’s ceramic material.
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11.4 Insulation deficiencies
11.4.1 General
Insulation deficiencies may result from insulation losing volume over the course of time
and thereby not entirely filling the cavity in a frame wall.
An infrared camera allows you to see these insulation deficiencies because they either
have a different heat conduction property than sections with correctly installed insulation,
and/or show the area where air is penetrating the frame of the building.
Note
When you are inspecting a building, the temperature difference between the inside and outside should
be at least 10°C (18°F). Studs, water pipes, concrete columns, and similar components may resemble
an insulation deficiency in an infrared image. Minor differences may also occur naturally.
11.4.2 Figure
In the image below, insulation in the roof framing is lacking. Due to the absence of insulation, air has forced its way into the roof structure, which thus takes on a different characteristic appearance in the infrared image.
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11.5 Draft
11.5.1 General
Draft can be found under baseboards, around door and window casings, and above ceiling trim. This type of draft is often possible to see with an infrared camera, as a cooler airstream cools down the surrounding surface.
Note
When you are investigating draft in a house, there should be sub-atmospheric pressure in the house.
Close all doors, windows, and ventilation ducts, and allow the kitchen fan to run for a while before you
take the infrared images.
An infrared image of draft often shows a typical stream pattern. You can see this stream pattern clearly in
the picture below.
Also keep in mind that drafts can be concealed by heat from floor heating circuits.
11.5.2 Figure
The image below shows a ceiling hatch where faulty installation has resulted in a strong
draft.
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About FLIR Systems
FLIR Systems was established in 1978 to pioneer the development of high-performance
infrared imaging systems, and is the world leader in the design, manufacture, and marketing of thermal imaging systems for a wide variety of commercial, industrial, and government applications. Today, FLIR Systems embraces five major companies with outstanding
achievements in infrared technology since 1958—the Swedish AGEMA Infrared Systems
(formerly AGA Infrared Systems), the three United States companies Indigo Systems, FSI,
and Inframetrics, and the French company Cedip.
Since 2007, FLIR Systems has acquired several companies with world-leading expertise
in sensor technologies:
• Extech Instruments (2007)
• Ifara Tecnologías (2008)
• Salvador Imaging (2009)
• OmniTech Partners (2009)
• Directed Perception (2009)
• Raymarine (2010)
• ICx Technologies (2010)
• TackTick Marine Digital Instruments (2011)
• Aerius Photonics (2011)
• Lorex Technology (2012)
• Traficon (2012)
• MARSS (2013)
• DigitalOptics micro-optics business (2013)
Figure 12.1 Patent documents from the early 1960s
The company has sold more than 258,000 infrared cameras worldwide for applications
such as predictive maintenance, R & D, non-destructive testing, process control and automation, and machine vision, among many others.
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About FLIR Systems
FLIR Systems has three manufacturing plants in the United States (Portland, OR, Boston,
MA, Santa Barbara, CA) and one in Sweden (Stockholm). Since 2007 there is also a manufacturing plant in Tallinn, Estonia. Direct sales offices in Belgium, Brazil, China, France,
Germany, Great Britain, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Korea, Sweden, and the USA—together
with a worldwide network of agents and distributors—support our international customer
base.
FLIR Systems is at the forefront of innovation in the infrared camera industry. We anticipate market demand by constantly improving our existing cameras and developing new
ones. The company has set milestones in product design and development such as the introduction of the first battery-operated portable camera for industrial inspections, and the
first uncooled infrared camera, to mention just two innovations.
Figure 12.2 LEFT: Thermovision Model 661 from 1969. The camera weighed approximately 25 kg (55 lb.),
the oscilloscope 20 kg (44 lb.), and the tripod 15 kg (33 lb.). The operator also needed a 220 VAC generator
set, and a 10 L (2.6 US gallon) jar with liquid nitrogen. To the left of the oscilloscope the Polaroid attachment
(6 kg/13 lb.) can be seen. RIGHT: FLIR One, which was launched in January 2014, is a slide-on attachment
that gives iPhones thermal imaging capabilities. Weight: 90 g (3.2 oz.).
FLIR Systems manufactures all vital mechanical and electronic components of the camera
systems itself. From detector design and manufacturing, to lenses and system electronics,
to final testing and calibration, all production steps are carried out and supervised by our
own engineers. The in-depth expertise of these infrared specialists ensures the accuracy
and reliability of all vital components that are assembled into your infrared camera.
12.1 More than just an infrared camera
At FLIR Systems we recognize that our job is to go beyond just producing the best infrared
camera systems. We are committed to enabling all users of our infrared camera systems
to work more productively by providing them with the most powerful camera–software
combination. Especially tailored software for predictive maintenance, R & D, and process
monitoring is developed in-house. Most software is available in a wide variety of
languages.
We support all our infrared cameras with a wide variety of accessories to adapt your equipment to the most demanding infrared applications.
12.2 Sharing our knowledge
Although our cameras are designed to be very user-friendly, there is a lot more to thermography than just knowing how to handle a camera. Therefore, FLIR Systems has founded
the Infrared Training Center (ITC), a separate business unit, that provides certified training
courses. Attending one of the ITC courses will give you a truly hands-on learning
experience.
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About FLIR Systems
The staff of the ITC are also there to provide you with any application support you may
need in putting infrared theory into practice.
12.3 Supporting our customers
FLIR Systems operates a worldwide service network to keep your camera running at all
times. If you discover a problem with your camera, local service centers have all the equipment and expertise to solve it within the shortest possible time. Therefore, there is no need
to send your camera to the other side of the world or to talk to someone who does not
speak your language.
12.4 A few images from our facilities
Figure 12.3 LEFT: Development of system electronics; RIGHT: Testing of an FPA detector
Figure 12.4 LEFT: Diamond turning machine; RIGHT: Lens polishing
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Glossary
absorption (absorption factor)
atmosphere The gases between the object being measured and the camera, nor-
autoadjust A function making a camera perform an internal image correction.
autopalette The IR image is shown with an uneven spread of colors, displaying
blackbody Totally non-reflective object. All its radiation is due to its own
blackbody
radiator
calculated atmospheric
transmission
cavity radiator A bottle shaped radiator with an absorbing inside, viewed through the
color
temperature
conduction The process that makes heat diffuse into a material.
continuous
adjust
convection
dual isotherm An isotherm with two color bands, instead of one.
emissivity
(emissivity
factor)
emittance Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time and area
environment
estimated atmospheric
transmission
external optics Extra lenses, filters, heat shields etc. that can be put between the
filter A material transparent only to some of the infrared wavelengths.
FOV Field of view: The horizontal angle that can be viewed through an IR
FPA Focal plane array: A type of IR detector.
graybody An object that emits a fixed fraction of the amount of energy of a
The amount of radiation absorbed by an object relative to the received radiation. A number between 0 and 1.
mally air.
cold objects as well as hot ones at the same time.
temperature.
An IR radiating equipment with blackbody properties used to calibrate
IR cameras.
A transmission value computed from the temperature, the relative hu-
midity of air and the distance to the object.
bottleneck.
The temperature for which the color of a blackbody matches a specif-
ic color.
A function that adjusts the image. The function works all the time,
continuously adjusting brightness and contrast according to the image content.
Convection is a heat transfer mode where a fluid is brought into motion, either by gravity or another force, thereby transferring heat from
one place to another.
The amount of radiation coming from an object, compared to that of a
blackbody. A number between 0 and 1.
2
(W/m
)
Objects and gases that emit radiation towards the object being
measured.
A transmission value, supplied by a user, replacing a calculated one
camera and the object being measured.
lens.
blackbody for each wavelength.
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Glossary
IFOV Instantaneous field of view: A measure of the geometrical resolution
of an IR camera.
image correction (internal or
A way of compensating for sensitivity differences in various parts of
live images and also of stabilizing the camera.
external)
infrared Non-visible radiation, having a wavelength from about 2–13 μm.
IR infrared
isotherm A function highlighting those parts of an image that fall above, below
or between one or more temperature intervals.
isothermal
cavity
A bottle-shaped radiator with a uniform temperature viewed through
the bottleneck.
Laser LocatIR An electrically powered light source on the camera that emits laser ra-
diation in a thin, concentrated beam to point at certain parts of the object in front of the camera.
laser pointer An electrically powered light source on the camera that emits laser ra-
diation in a thin, concentrated beam to point at certain parts of the object in front of the camera.
level The center value of the temperature scale, usually expressed as a
signal value.
manual adjust A way to adjust the image by manually changing certain parameters.
NETD Noise equivalent temperature difference. A measure of the image
noise level of an IR camera.
noise Undesired small disturbance in the infrared image
object
parameters
A set of values describing the circumstances under which the meas-
urement of an object was made, and the object itself (such as emis-
sivity, reflected apparent temperature, distance etc.)
object signal A non-calibrated value related to the amount of radiation received by
the camera from the object.
palette The set of colors used to display an IR image.
pixel
Stands for picture element. One single spot in an image.
radiance Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and
angle (W/m
2
/sr)
radiant power Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time (W)
radiation The process by which electromagnetic energy, is emitted by an object
or a gas.
radiator A piece of IR radiating equipment.
range
The current overall temperature measurement limitation of an IR camera. Cameras can have several ranges. Expressed as two blackbody
temperatures that limit the current calibration.
reference
temperature
A temperature which the ordinary measured values can be compared
with.
reflection The amount of radiation reflected by an object relative to the received
radiation. A number between 0 and 1.
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Glossary
relative
humidity
Relative humidity represents the ratio between the current water vapour mass in the air and the maximum it may contain in saturation
conditions.
saturation
color
The areas that contain temperatures outside the present level/span
settings are colored with the saturation colors. The saturation colors
contain an ‘overflow’ color and an ‘underflow’ color. There is also a
third red saturation color that marks everything saturated by the detector indicating that the range should probably be changed.
span
The interval of the temperature scale, usually expressed as a signal
value.
spectral (radiant) emittance
temperature
difference, or
Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and
wavelength (W/m
2
/μm)
A value which is the result of a subtraction between two temperature
values.
difference of
temperature.
temperature
range
The current overall temperature measurement limitation of an IR cam-
era. Cameras can have several ranges. Expressed as two blackbody
temperatures that limit the current calibration.
temperature
scale
The way in which an IR image currently is displayed. Expressed as
two temperature values limiting the colors.
thermogram infrared image
transmission
(or transmittance) factor
transparent
isotherm
Gases and materials can be more or less transparent. Transmission
is the amount of IR radiation passing through them. A number be-
tween 0 and 1.
An isotherm showing a linear spread of colors, instead of covering the
highlighted parts of the image.
visual Refers to the video mode of a IR camera, as opposed to the normal,
thermographic mode. When a camera is in video mode it captures or-
dinary video images, while thermographic images are captured when
the camera is in IR mode.
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Thermographic measurement techniques
14.1 Introduction
An infrared camera measures and images the emitted infrared radiation from an object.
The fact that radiation is a function of object surface temperature makes it possible for the
camera to calculate and display this temperature.
However, the radiation measured by the camera does not only depend on the temperature
of the object but is also a function of the emissivity. Radiation also originates from the surroundings and is reflected in the object. The radiation from the object and the reflected radiation will also be influenced by the absorption of the atmosphere.
To measure temperature accurately, it is therefore necessary to compensate for the effects
of a number of different radiation sources. This is done on-line automatically by the camera. The following object parameters must, however, be supplied for the camera:
• The emissivity of the object
• The reflected apparent temperature
• The distance between the object and the camera
• The relative humidity
• Temperature of the atmosphere
14.2 Emissivity
The most important object parameter to set correctly is the emissivity which, in short, is a
measure of how much radiation is emitted from the object, compared to that from a perfect
blackbody of the same temperature.
Normally, object materials and surface treatments exhibit emissivity ranging from approximately 0.1 to 0.95. A highly polished (mirror) surface falls below 0.1, while an oxidized or
painted surface has a higher emissivity. Oil-based paint, regardless of color in the visible
spectrum, has an emissivity over 0.9 in the infrared. Human skin exhibits an emissivity
0.97 to 0.98.
Non-oxidized metals represent an extreme case of perfect opacity and high reflexivity,
which does not vary greatly with wavelength. Consequently, the emissivity of metals is low
– only increasing with temperature. For non-metals, emissivity tends to be high, and decreases with temperature.
14.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample
14.2.1.1 Step 1: Determining reflected apparent temperature
Use one of the following two methods to determine reflected apparent temperature:
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Thermographic measurement techniques14
14.2.1.1.1 Method 1: Direct method
Follow this procedure:
1. Look for possible reflection sources, considering that the incident angle = reflection angle (a = b).
Figure 14.1 1 = Reflection source
2. If the reflection source is a spot source, modify the source by obstructing it using a
piece if cardboard.
Figure 14.2 1 = Reflection source
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Thermographic measurement techniques14
3. Measure the radiation intensity (= apparent temperature) from the reflecting source using the following settings:
• Emissivity: 1.0
• D
: 0
obj
You can measure the radiation intensity using one of the following two methods:
Figure 14.3 1 = Reflection source
Note
Using a thermocouple to measure reflected apparent temperature is not recommended for two important
reasons:
• A thermocouple does not measure radiation intensity
• A thermocouple requires a very good thermal contact to the surface, usually by gluing and covering
the sensor by a thermal isolator.
14.2.1.1.2 Method 2: Reflector method
Follow this procedure:
1. Crumble up a large piece of aluminum foil.
2. Uncrumble the aluminum foil and attach it to a piece of cardboard of the same size.
3. Put the piece of cardboard in front of the object you want to measure. Make sure that
the side with aluminum foil points to the camera.
4. Set the emissivity to 1.0.
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Thermographic measurement techniques14
5. Measure the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil and write it down.
Figure 14.4 Measuring the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil.
14.2.1.2 Step 2: Determining the emissivity
Follow this procedure:
1. Select a place to put the sample.
2. Determine and set reflected apparent temperature according to the previous
procedure.
3. Put a piece of electrical tape with known high emissivity on the sample.
4. Heat the sample at least 20 K above room temperature. Heating must be reasonably
even.
5. Focus and auto-adjust the camera, and freeze the image.
6. Adjust Level and Span for best image brightness and contrast.
7. Set emissivity to that of the tape (usually 0.97).
8. Measure the temperature of the tape using one of the following measurement
functions:
• Isotherm (helps you to determine both the temperature and how evenly you have
heated the sample)
• Spot (simpler)
• Box Avg (good for surfaces with varying emissivity).
9. Write down the temperature.
10. Move your measurement function to the sample surface.
11. Change the emissivity setting until you read the same temperature as your previous
measurement.
12. Write down the emissivity.
Note
• Avoid forced convection
• Look for a thermally stable surrounding that will not generate spot reflections
• Use high quality tape that you know is not transparent, and has a high emissivity you are certain of
• This method assumes that the temperature of your tape and the sample surface are the same. If they
are not, your emissivity measurement will be wrong.
14.3 Reflected apparent temperature
This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected in the object. If the emissivity is low and the object temperature relatively far from that of the reflected it will be important to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature correctly.
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Thermographic measurement techniques14
14.4 Distance
The distance is the distance between the object and the front lens of the camera. This parameter is used to compensate for the following two facts:
• That radiation from the target is absorbed by the atmosphere between the object and
the camera.
• That radiation from the atmosphere itself is detected by the camera.
14.5 Relative humidity
The camera can also compensate for the fact that the transmittance is also dependent on
the relative humidity of the atmosphere. To do this set the relative humidity to the correct
value. For short distances and normal humidity the relative humidity can normally be left at
a default value of 50%.
14.6 Other parameters
In addition, some cameras and analysis programs from FLIR Systems allow you to compensate for the following parameters:
• Atmospheric temperature – i.e. the temperature of the atmosphere between the camera
and the target
• External optics temperature – i.e. the temperature of any external lenses or windows
used in front of the camera
• External optics transmittance – i.e. the transmission of any external lenses or windows
used in front of the camera
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History of infrared technology
Before the year 1800, the existence of the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
wasn't even suspected. The original significance of the infrared spectrum, or simply ‘the infrared’ as it is often called, as a form of heat radiation is perhaps less obvious today than it
was at the time of its discovery by Herschel in 1800.
Figure 15.1 Sir William Herschel (1738–1822)
The discovery was made accidentally during the search for a new optical material. Sir William Herschel – Royal Astronomer to King George III of England, and already famous for
his discovery of the planet Uranus – was searching for an optical filter material to reduce
the brightness of the sun’s image in telescopes during solar observations. While testing
different samples of colored glass which gave similar reductions in brightness he was intrigued to find that some of the samples passed very little of the sun’s heat, while others
passed so much heat that he risked eye damage after only a few seconds’ observation.
Herschel was soon convinced of the necessity of setting up a systematic experiment, with
the objective of finding a single material that would give the desired reduction in brightness
as well as the maximum reduction in heat. He began the experiment by actually repeating
Newton’s prism experiment, but looking for the heating effect rather than the visual distribution of intensity in the spectrum. He first blackened the bulb of a sensitive mercury-inglass thermometer with ink, and with this as his radiation detector he proceeded to test
the heating effect of the various colors of the spectrum formed on the top of a table by
passing sunlight through a glass prism. Other thermometers, placed outside the sun’s
rays, served as controls.
As the blackened thermometer was moved slowly along the colors of the spectrum, the
temperature readings showed a steady increase from the violet end to the red end. This
was not entirely unexpected, since the Italian researcher, Landriani, in a similar experiment
in 1777 had observed much the same effect. It was Herschel, however, who was the first
to recognize that there must be a point where the heating effect reaches a maximum, and
that measurements confined to the visible portion of the spectrum failed to locate this
point.
Figure 15.2 Marsilio Landriani (1746–1815)
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History of infrared technology
Moving the thermometer into the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum, Herschel confirmed that the heating continued to increase. The maximum point, when he
found it, lay well beyond the red end – in what is known today as the ‘infrared wavelengths’.
When Herschel revealed his discovery, he referred to this new portion of the electromagnetic spectrum as the ‘thermometrical spectrum’. The radiation itself he sometimes referred to as ‘dark heat’, or simply ‘the invisible rays’. Ironically, and contrary to popular
opinion, it wasn't Herschel who originated the term ‘infrared’. The word only began to appear in print around 75 years later, and it is still unclear who should receive credit as the
originator.
Herschel’s use of glass in the prism of his original experiment led to some early controversies with his contemporaries about the actual existence of the infrared wavelengths. Different investigators, in attempting to confirm his work, used various types of glass
indiscriminately, having different transparencies in the infrared. Through his later experiments, Herschel was aware of the limited transparency of glass to the newly-discovered
thermal radiation, and he was forced to conclude that optics for the infrared would probably be doomed to the use of reflective elements exclusively (i.e. plane and curved mirrors). Fortunately, this proved to be true only until 1830, when the Italian investigator,
Melloni, made his great discovery that naturally occurring rock salt (NaCl) – which was
available in large enough natural crystals to be made into lenses and prisms – is remarkably transparent to the infrared. The result was that rock salt became the principal infrared
optical material, and remained so for the next hundred years, until the art of synthetic crystal growing was mastered in the 1930’s.
Figure 15.3 Macedonio Melloni (1798–1854)
Thermometers, as radiation detectors, remained unchallenged until 1829, the year Nobili
invented the thermocouple. (Herschel’s own thermometer could be read to 0.2 °C (0.036 °
F), and later models were able to be read to 0.05 °C (0.09 °F)). Then a breakthrough occurred; Melloni connected a number of thermocouples in series to form the first thermopile.
The new device was at least 40 times as sensitive as the best thermometer of the day for
detecting heat radiation – capable of detecting the heat from a person standing three meters away.
The first so-called ‘heat-picture’ became possible in 1840, the result of work by Sir John
Herschel, son of the discoverer of the infrared and a famous astronomer in his own right.
Based upon the differential evaporation of a thin film of oil when exposed to a heat pattern
focused upon it, the thermal image could be seen by reflected light where the interference
effects of the oil film made the image visible to the eye. Sir John also managed to obtain a
primitive record of the thermal image on paper, which he called a ‘thermograph’.
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History of infrared technology
Figure 15.4 Samuel P. Langley (1834–1906)
The improvement of infrared-detector sensitivity progressed slowly. Another major breakthrough, made by Langley in 1880, was the invention of the bolometer. This consisted of a
thin blackened strip of platinum connected in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit upon
which the infrared radiation was focused and to which a sensitive galvanometer responded. This instrument is said to have been able to detect the heat from a cow at a distance of 400 meters.
An English scientist, Sir James Dewar, first introduced the use of liquefied gases as cooling agents (such as liquid nitrogen with a temperature of -196 °C (-320.8 °F)) in low temperature research. In 1892 he invented a unique vacuum insulating container in which it is
possible to store liquefied gases for entire days. The common ‘thermos bottle’, used for
storing hot and cold drinks, is based upon his invention.
Between the years 1900 and 1920, the inventors of the world ‘discovered’ the infrared.
Many patents were issued for devices to detect personnel, artillery, aircraft, ships – and
even icebergs. The first operating systems, in the modern sense, began to be developed
during the 1914–18 war, when both sides had research programs devoted to the military
exploitation of the infrared. These programs included experimental systems for enemy intrusion/detection, remote temperature sensing, secure communications, and ‘flying torpedo’ guidance. An infrared search system tested during this period was able to detect an
approaching airplane at a distance of 1.5 km (0.94 miles), or a person more than 300 meters (984 ft.) away.
The most sensitive systems up to this time were all based upon variations of the bolometer
idea, but the period between the two wars saw the development of two revolutionary new
infrared detectors: the image converter and the photon detector. At first, the image converter received the greatest attention by the military, because it enabled an observer for
the first time in history to literally ‘see in the dark’. However, the sensitivity of the image
converter was limited to the near infrared wavelengths, and the most interesting military
targets (i.e. enemy soldiers) had to be illuminated by infrared search beams. Since this involved the risk of giving away the observer’s position to a similarly-equipped enemy observer, it is understandable that military interest in the image converter eventually faded.
The tactical military disadvantages of so-called 'active’ (i.e. search beam-equipped) thermal imaging systems provided impetus following the 1939–45 war for extensive secret
military infrared-research programs into the possibilities of developing ‘passive’ (no search
beam) systems around the extremely sensitive photon detector. During this period, military
secrecy regulations completely prevented disclosure of the status of infrared-imaging
technology. This secrecy only began to be lifted in the middle of the 1950’s, and from that
time adequate thermal-imaging devices finally began to be available to civilian science
and industry.
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Theory of thermography
16.1 Introduction
The subjects of infrared radiation and the related technique of thermography are still new
to many who will use an infrared camera. In this section the theory behind thermography
will be given.
16.2 The electromagnetic spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is divided arbitrarily into a number of wavelength regions,
called bands, distinguished by the methods used to produce and detect the radiation.
There is no fundamental difference between radiation in the different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are all governed by the same laws and the only differences are
those due to differences in wavelength.
Figure 16.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. 1: X-ray; 2: UV; 3: Visible; 4: IR; 5: Microwaves; 6: Radiowaves.
Thermography makes use of the infrared spectral band. At the short-wavelength end the
boundary lies at the limit of visual perception, in the deep red. At the long-wavelength end
it merges with the microwave radio wavelengths, in the millimeter range.
The infrared band is often further subdivided into four smaller bands, the boundaries of
which are also arbitrarily chosen. They include: the near infrared (0.75–3 μm), the middle
infrared (3–6 μm), the far infrared (6–15 μm) and the extreme infrared (15–100 μm).
Although the wavelengths are given in μm (micrometers), other units are often still used to
measure wavelength in this spectral region, e.g. nanometer (nm) and Ångström (Å).
The relationships between the different wavelength measurements is:
16.3 Blackbody radiation
A blackbody is defined as an object which absorbs all radiation that impinges on it at any
wavelength. The apparent misnomer black relating to an object emitting radiation is explained by Kirchhoff’s Law (after Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, 1824–1887), which states that a
body capable of absorbing all radiation at any wavelength is equally capable in the emission of radiation.
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Theory of thermography
Figure 16.2 Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887)
The construction of a blackbody source is, in principle, very simple. The radiation characteristics of an aperture in an isotherm cavity made of an opaque absorbing material represents almost exactly the properties of a blackbody. A practical application of the principle
to the construction of a perfect absorber of radiation consists of a box that is light tight except for an aperture in one of the sides. Any radiation which then enters the hole is scattered and absorbed by repeated reflections so only an infinitesimal fraction can possibly
escape. The blackness which is obtained at the aperture is nearly equal to a blackbody
and almost perfect for all wavelengths.
By providing such an isothermal cavity with a suitable heater it becomes what is termed a
cavity radiator. An isothermal cavity heated to a uniform temperature generates blackbody
radiation, the characteristics of which are determined solely by the temperature of the cavity. Such cavity radiators are commonly used as sources of radiation in temperature reference standards in the laboratory for calibrating thermographic instruments, such as a
FLIR Systems camera for example.
If the temperature of blackbody radiation increases to more than 525°C (977°F), the
source begins to be visible so that it appears to the eye no longer black. This is the incipient red heat temperature of the radiator, which then becomes orange or yellow as the temperature increases further. In fact, the definition of the so-called color temperature of an
object is the temperature to which a blackbody would have to be heated to have the same
appearance.
Now consider three expressions that describe the radiation emitted from a blackbody.
16.3.1 Planck’s law
Figure 16.3 Max Planck (1858–1947)
Max Planck (1858–1947) was able to describe the spectral distribution of the radiation
from a blackbody by means of the following formula:
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Theory of thermography
where:
W
λb
c
h Planck’s constant = 6.6 × 10
k
T Absolute temperature (K) of a blackbody.
λ Wavelength (μm).
Blackbody spectral radiant emittance at wavelength λ.
Velocity of light = 3 × 10
Boltzmann’s constant = 1.4 × 10
8
m/s
-34
Joule sec.
-23
Joule/K.
Note
The factor 10
-6
is used since spectral emittance in the curves is expressed in Watt/m2, μm.
Planck’s formula, when plotted graphically for various temperatures, produces a family of
curves. Following any particular Planck curve, the spectral emittance is zero at λ = 0, then
increases rapidly to a maximum at a wavelength λ
and after passing it approaches zero
max
again at very long wavelengths. The higher the temperature, the shorter the wavelength at
which maximum occurs.
Figure 16.4 Blackbody spectral radiant emittance according to Planck’s law, plotted for various absolute
temperatures. 1: Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm
2
× 103(μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm)
16.3.2 Wien’s displacement law
By differentiating Planck’s formula with respect to λ, and finding the maximum, we have:
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Theory of thermography
This is Wien’s formula (after Wilhelm Wien, 1864–1928), which expresses mathematically
the common observation that colors vary from red to orange or yellow as the temperature
of a thermal radiator increases. The wavelength of the color is the same as the wavelength
calculated for λ
. A good approximation of the value of λ
max
for a given blackbody tem-
max
perature is obtained by applying the rule-of-thumb 3 000/T μm. Thus, a very hot star such
as Sirius (11 000 K), emitting bluish-white light, radiates with the peak of spectral radiant
emittance occurring within the invisible ultraviolet spectrum, at wavelength 0.27 μm.
Figure 16.5 Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928)
The sun (approx. 6 000 K) emits yellow light, peaking at about 0.5 μm in the middle of the
visible light spectrum.
At room temperature (300 K) the peak of radiant emittance lies at 9.7 μm, in the far infrared, while at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K) the maximum of the almost insignificant amount of radiant emittance occurs at 38 μm, in the extreme infrared wavelengths.
Figure 16.6 Planckian curves plotted on semi-log scales from 100 K to 1000 K. The dotted line represents
the locus of maximum radiant emittance at each temperature as described by Wien's displacement law. 1:
Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm
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(μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm).
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16.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's law
By integrating Planck’s formula from λ = 0 to λ = ∞, we obtain the total radiant emittance
(W
) of a blackbody:
b
This is the Stefan-Boltzmann formula (after Josef Stefan, 1835–1893, and Ludwig Boltz-
mann, 1844–1906), which states that the total emissive power of a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. Graphically, W
represents the area
b
below the Planck curve for a particular temperature. It can be shown that the radiant emittance in the interval λ = 0 to λ
is only 25% of the total, which represents about the
max
amount of the sun’s radiation which lies inside the visible light spectrum.
Figure 16.7 Josef Stefan (1835–1893), and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906)
Using the Stefan-Boltzmann formula to calculate the power radiated by the human body,
at a temperature of 300 K and an external surface area of approx. 2 m
2
, we obtain 1 kW.
This power loss could not be sustained if it were not for the compensating absorption of radiation from surrounding surfaces, at room temperatures which do not vary too drastically
from the temperature of the body – or, of course, the addition of clothing.
16.3.4 Non-blackbody emitters
So far, only blackbody radiators and blackbody radiation have been discussed. However,
real objects almost never comply with these laws over an extended wavelength region –
although they may approach the blackbody behavior in certain spectral intervals. For example, a certain type of white paint may appear perfectly white in the visible light spectrum, but becomes distinctly gray at about 2 μm, and beyond 3 μm it is almost black.
There are three processes which can occur that prevent a real object from acting like a
blackbody: a fraction of the incident radiation α may be absorbed, a fraction ρ may be reflected, and a fraction τ may be transmitted. Since all of these factors are more or less
wavelength dependent, the subscript λ is used to imply the spectral dependence of their
definitions. Thus:
• The spectral absorptance α
= the ratio of the spectral radiant power absorbed by an ob-
λ
ject to that incident upon it.
• The spectral reflectance ρ
= the ratio of the spectral radiant power reflected by an ob-
λ
ject to that incident upon it.
• The spectral transmittance τ
= the ratio of the spectral radiant power transmitted
λ
through an object to that incident upon it.
The sum of these three factors must always add up to the whole at any wavelength, so we
have the relation:
For opaque materials τλ= 0 and the relation simplifies to:
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Another factor, called the emissivity, is required to describe the fraction ε of the radiant
emittance of a blackbody produced by an object at a specific temperature. Thus, we have
the definition:
The spectral emissivity ε
= the ratio of the spectral radiant power from an object to that
λ
from a blackbody at the same temperature and wavelength.
Expressed mathematically, this can be written as the ratio of the spectral emittance of the
object to that of a blackbody as follows:
Generally speaking, there are three types of radiation source, distinguished by the ways in
which the spectral emittance of each varies with wavelength.
• A blackbody, for which ε
• A graybody, for which ε
= ε = 1
λ
= ε = constant less than 1
λ
• A selective radiator, for which ε varies with wavelength
According to Kirchhoff’s law, for any material the spectral emissivity and spectral absorp-
tance of a body are equal at any specified temperature and wavelength. That is:
From this we obtain, for an opaque material (since αλ+ ρλ= 1):
For highly polished materials ελapproaches zero, so that for a perfectly reflecting material
(i.e. a perfect mirror) we have:
For a graybody radiator, the Stefan-Boltzmann formula becomes:
This states that the total emissive power of a graybody is the same as a blackbody at the
same temperature reduced in proportion to the value of ε from the graybody.
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Theory of thermography
Figure 16.8 Spectral radiant emittance of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral radiant emittance; 2: Wave-
length; 3: Blackbody; 4: Selective radiator; 5: Graybody.
Figure 16.9 Spectral emissivity of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral emissivity; 2: Wavelength; 3: Blackbody; 4: Graybody; 5: Selective radiator.
16.4 Infrared semi-transparent materials
Consider now a non-metallic, semi-transparent body – let us say, in the form of a thick flat
plate of plastic material. When the plate is heated, radiation generated within its volume
must work its way toward the surfaces through the material in which it is partially absorbed.
Moreover, when it arrives at the surface, some of it is reflected back into the interior. The
back-reflected radiation is again partially absorbed, but some of it arrives at the other surface, through which most of it escapes; part of it is reflected back again. Although the progressive reflections become weaker and weaker they must all be added up when the total
emittance of the plate is sought. When the resulting geometrical series is summed, the effective emissivity of a semi-transparent plate is obtained as:
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Theory of thermography
When the plate becomes opaque this formula is reduced to the single formula:
This last relation is a particularly convenient one, because it is often easier to measure reflectance than to measure emissivity directly.
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17
The measurement formula
As already mentioned, when viewing an object, the camera receives radiation not only
from the object itself. It also collects radiation from the surroundings reflected via the object surface. Both these radiation contributions become attenuated to some extent by the
atmosphere in the measurement path. To this comes a third radiation contribution from the
atmosphere itself.
This description of the measurement situation, as illustrated in the figure below, is so far a
fairly true description of the real conditions. What has been neglected could for instance
be sun light scattering in the atmosphere or stray radiation from intense radiation sources
outside the field of view. Such disturbances are difficult to quantify, however, in most cases
they are fortunately small enough to be neglected. In case they are not negligible, the
measurement configuration is likely to be such that the risk for disturbance is obvious, at
least to a trained operator. It is then his responsibility to modify the measurement situation
to avoid the disturbance e.g. by changing the viewing direction, shielding off intense radiation sources etc.
Accepting the description above, we can use the figure below to derive a formula for the
calculation of the object temperature from the calibrated camera output.
Figure 17.1 A schematic representation of the general thermographic measurement situation.1: Surroundings; 2: Object; 3: Atmosphere; 4: Camera
Assume that the received radiation power W from a blackbody source of temperature
T
on short distance generates a camera output signal U
source
the power input (power linear camera). We can then write (Equation 1):
or, with simplified notation:
where C is a constant.
Should the source be a graybody with emittance ε, the received radiation would conse-
quently be εW
We are now ready to write the three collected radiation power terms:
1. Emission from the object = ετW
transmittance of the atmosphere. The object temperature is T
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source
.
, where ε is the emittance of the object and τ is the
obj
that is proportional to
source
.
obj
54
17
The measurement formula
2. Reflected emission from ambient sources = (1 – ε)τW
tance of the object. The ambient sources have the temperature T
It has here been assumed that the temperature T
, where (1 – ε) is the reflec-
refl
.
refl
is the same for all emitting surfaces
refl
within the halfsphere seen from a point on the object surface. This is of course sometimes a simplification of the true situation. It is, however, a necessary simplification in
order to derive a workable formula, and T
can – at least theoretically – be given a val-
refl
ue that represents an efficient temperature of a complex surrounding.
Note also that we have assumed that the emittance for the surroundings = 1. This is
correct in accordance with Kirchhoff’s law: All radiation impinging on the surrounding
surfaces will eventually be absorbed by the same surfaces. Thus the emittance = 1.
(Note though that the latest discussion requires the complete sphere around the object
to be considered.)
3. Emission from the atmosphere = (1 – τ)τW
mosphere. The temperature of the atmosphere is T
, where (1 – τ) is the emittance of the at-
atm
atm
.
The total received radiation power can now be written (Equation 2):
We multiply each term by the constant C of Equation 1 and replace the CW products by
the corresponding U according to the same equation, and get (Equation 3):
Solve Equation 3 for U
(Equation 4):
obj
This is the general measurement formula used in all the FLIR Systems thermographic
equipment. The voltages of the formula are:
Table 17.1 Voltages
U
obj
U
tot
U
refl
U
atm
Calculated camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature T
i.e. a voltage that can be directly converted into true requested object
temperature.
Measured camera output voltage for the actual case.
Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature
T
according to the calibration.
refl
Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature
according to the calibration.
T
atm
obj
The operator has to supply a number of parameter values for the calculation:
• the object emittance ε,
• the relative humidity,
• T
atm
• object distance (D
obj
)
• the (effective) temperature of the object surroundings, or the reflected ambient temper-
ature T
• the temperature of the atmosphere T
refl
, and
atm
This task could sometimes be a heavy burden for the operator since there are normally no
easy ways to find accurate values of emittance and atmospheric transmittance for the
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The measurement formula
actual case. The two temperatures are normally less of a problem provided the surroundings do not contain large and intense radiation sources.
A natural question in this connection is: How important is it to know the right values of
these parameters? It could though be of interest to get a feeling for this problem already
here by looking into some different measurement cases and compare the relative magnitudes of the three radiation terms. This will give indications about when it is important to
use correct values of which parameters.
The figures below illustrates the relative magnitudes of the three radiation contributions for
three different object temperatures, two emittances, and two spectral ranges: SW and LW.
Remaining parameters have the following fixed values:
• τ = 0.88
• T
= +20°C (+68°F)
refl
• T
= +20°C (+68°F)
atm
It is obvious that measurement of low object temperatures are more critical than measuring high temperatures since the ‘disturbing’ radiation sources are relatively much stronger
in the first case. Should also the object emittance be low, the situation would be still more
difficult.
We have finally to answer a question about the importance of being allowed to use the calibration curve above the highest calibration point, what we call extrapolation. Imagine that
we in a certain case measure U
= 4.5 volts. The highest calibration point for the camera
tot
was in the order of 4.1 volts, a value unknown to the operator. Thus, even if the object happened to be a blackbody, i.e. U
obj
= U
, we are actually performing extrapolation of the
tot
calibration curve when converting 4.5 volts into temperature.
Let us now assume that the object is not black, it has an emittance of 0.75, and the trans-
mittance is 0.92. We also assume that the two second terms of Equation 4 amount to 0.5
volts together. Computation of U
by means of Equation 4 then results in U
obj
= 4.5 / 0.75
obj
/ 0.92 – 0.5 = 6.0. This is a rather extreme extrapolation, particularly when considering that
the video amplifier might limit the output to 5 volts! Note, though, that the application of the
calibration curve is a theoretical procedure where no electronic or other limitations exist.
We trust that if there had been no signal limitations in the camera, and if it had been calibrated far beyond 5 volts, the resulting curve would have been very much the same as our
real curve extrapolated beyond 4.1 volts, provided the calibration algorithm is based on radiation physics, like the FLIR Systems algorithm. Of course there must be a limit to such
extrapolations.
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The measurement formula
Figure 17.2 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (SW camera).
1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; T
= 20°C (+68°F); T
refl
= 20°C (+68°F).
atm
Figure 17.3 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (LW camera).
1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; T
= 20°C (+68°F); T
refl
= 20°C (+68°F).
atm
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18
Emissivity tables
This section presents a compilation of emissivity data from the infrared literature and
measurements made by FLIR Systems.
18.1 References
1. Mikaél A. Bramson: Infrared Radiation, A Handbook for Applications, Plenum press, N.
Y.
2. William L. Wolfe, George J. Zissis: The Infrared Handbook, Office of Naval Research,
Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.
3. Madding, R. P.: Thermographic Instruments and systems. Madison, Wisconsin: Univer-
sity of Wisconsin – Extension, Department of Engineering and Applied Science.
4. William L. Wolfe: Handbook of Military Infrared Technology, Office of Naval Research,
Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.
5. Jones, Smith, Probert: External thermography of buildings..., Proc. of the Society of
Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol.110, Industrial and Civil Applications of
Infrared Technology, June 1977 London.
6. Paljak, Pettersson: Thermography of Buildings, Swedish Building Research Institute,
Stockholm 1972.
7. Vlcek, J: Determination of emissivity with imaging radiometers and some emissivities
at λ = 5 µm. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing.
8. Kern: Evaluation of infrared emission of clouds and ground as measured by weather
satellites, Defence Documentation Center, AD 617 417.
9. Öhman, Claes: Emittansmätningar med AGEMA E-Box. Teknisk rapport, AGEMA
1999. (Emittance measurements using AGEMA E-Box. Technical report, AGEMA
1999.)
10. Matteï, S., Tang-Kwor, E: Emissivity measurements for Nextel Velvet coating 811-21
between –36°C AND 82°C.
11. Lohrengel & Todtenhaupt (1996)
12. ITC Technical publication 32.
13. ITC Technical publication 29.
Note
The emissivity values in the table below are recorded using a shortwave (SW) camera. The values should
be regarded as recommendations only and used with caution.
18.2 Tables
Table 18.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:
Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference
1 2 3 4 5 6
3M type 35 Vinyl electrical
3M type 88 Black vinyl electri-
3M type 88 Black vinyl electri-
3M type Super 33
+
Aluminum anodized sheet 100 T 0.55 2
Aluminum anodized, black,
Aluminum anodized, black,
tape (several
colors)
cal tape
cal tape
Black vinyl electrical tape
dull
dull
< 80 LW ≈ 0.96 13
< 105 LW ≈ 0.96 13
< 105 MW < 0.96 13
< 80 LW ≈ 0.96 13
70
70 LW 0.95 9
SW
0.67 9
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Table 18.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:
Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Aluminum anodized, light
70
SW
gray, dull
Aluminum anodized, light
70 LW 0.97 9
gray, dull
Aluminum as received, plate 100 T 0.09 4
Aluminum as received, sheet 100 T 0.09 2
Aluminum cast, blast
70
SW
cleaned
Aluminum cast, blast
70 LW 0.46 9
cleaned
Aluminum
dipped in HNO
100 T 0.05 4
,
3
plate
Aluminum foil
Aluminum foil
27 10 µm 0.04 3
27 3 µm 0.09 3
Aluminum oxidized, strongly 50–500 T 0.2–0.3 1
Aluminum polished 50–100 T 0.04–0.06 1
Aluminum polished plate 100 T 0.05 4
Aluminum polished, sheet 100 T 0.05 2
Aluminum rough surface
20–50 T 0.06–0.07 1
Aluminum roughened 27 10 µm 0.18 3
Aluminum roughened 27 3 µm 0.28 3
Aluminum sheet, 4 samples
70
SW
differently
scratched
Aluminum sheet, 4 samples
70 LW 0.03–0.06 9
differently
scratched
Aluminum vacuum deposited 20 T 0.04 2
Aluminum weathered,
17
SW
heavily
Aluminum bronze 20 T 0.60 1
Aluminum
powder T 0.28 1
hydroxide
Aluminum oxide activated, powder T 0.46 1
Aluminum oxide pure, powder
T 0.16 1
(alumina)
Asbestos board 20 T 0.96 1
Asbestos fabric T 0.78 1
Asbestos floor tile
Asbestos
paper 40–400 T 0.93–0.95 1
35
SW
Asbestos powder T 0.40–0.60 1
Asbestos slate 20 T 0.96 1
Asphalt paving 4 LLW 0.967 8
0.61 9
0.47 9
0.05–0.08 9
0.83–0.94 5
0.94 7
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Table 18.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:
Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Brass dull, tarnished 20–350 T 0.22 1
Brass oxidized 100 T 0.61 2
Brass oxidized 70
SW
Brass oxidized 70 LW 0.03–0.07 9
Brass oxidized at 600°C
200–600 T 0.59–0.61 1
Brass polished 200 T 0.03 1
Brass polished, highly 100 T 0.03 2
Brass rubbed with 80-
20 T 0.20 2
grit emery
Brass sheet, rolled 20 T 0.06 1
Brass sheet, worked
20 T 0.2 1
with emery
Brick alumina 17
Brick
Brick Dinas silica,
common 17
1100 T 0.85 1
SW
SW
glazed, rough
Brick Dinas silica,
1000 T 0.66 1
refractory
Brick Dinas silica, un-
1000 T 0.80 1
glazed, rough
Brick firebrick
Brick fireclay
Brick fireclay
Brick fireclay
Brick
Brick
masonry 35
masonry,
17
SW
1000 T 0.75 1
1200 T 0.59 1
20 T 0.85 1
SW
20 T 0.94 1
plastered
Brick red, common 20 T 0.93 2
Brick red, rough 20 T 0.88–0.93 1
Brick refractory,
1000 T 0.46 1
corundum
Brick refractory,
1000–1300 T 0.38 1
magnesite
Brick refractory, strongly
500–1000 T 0.8–0.9 1
radiating
Brick refractory, weakly
500–1000 T 0.65–0.75 1
radiating
Brick
silica, 95% SiO
Brick sillimanite, 33%
SiO
, 64% Al2O
2
Brick waterproof
Bronze phosphor bronze 70
1230 T 0.66 1
2
1500 T 0.29 1
3
17
SW
SW
Bronze phosphor bronze 70 LW 0.06 9
0.04–0.09 9
0.68 5
0.86–0.81 5
0.68 5
0.94 7
0.87 5
0.08 9
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Table 18.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:
Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Bronze polished 50 T 0.1 1
Bronze porous, rough 50–150 T 0.55 1
Bronze powder T 0.76–0.80 1
Carbon candle soot 20 T 0.95 2
Carbon charcoal powder T 0.96 1
Carbon
Carbon graphite, filed
Carbon
Chipboard untreated 20 SW
Chromium polished 50 T 0.10 1
Chromium
Clay fired
Cloth
Concrete
Concrete dry 36 SW
Concrete
Concrete
Copper commercial,
Copper
Copper electrolytic,
Copper
Copper
Copper
Copper oxidized, black 27 T 0.78 4
Copper oxidized, heavily 20 T 0.78 2
Copper polished 50–100 T 0.02 1
Copper polished 100 T 0.03 2
Copper polished,
Copper
Copper pure, carefully
Copper
Copper dioxide
Copper oxide
Ebonite T 0.89 1
graphite powder T 0.97 1
surface
lampblack 20–400 T 0.95–0.97 1
polished 500–1000 T 0.28–0.38 1
black 20 T 0.98 1
rough 17
walkway
burnished
electrolytic, care-
fully polished
polished
molten 1100–1300 T 0.13–0.15 1
oxidized 50 T 0.6–0.7 1
oxidized to
blackness
commercial
polished,
mechanical
prepared surface
scraped 27 T 0.07 4
powder T 0.84 1
red, powder T 0.70 1
20 T 0.98 2
0.90 6
70 T 0.91 1
20 T 0.92 2
0.95 7
SW
5
20 T 0.07 1
80 T 0.018 1
–34 T 0.006 4
27 T 0.03 4
22 T 0.015 4
22 T 0.008 4
LLW 0.974 8
T 0.88 1
0.97 5
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Table 18.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:
Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Emery
Enamel 20 T 0.9 1
Enamel lacquer 20 T 0.85–0.95 1
Fiber board hard, untreated 20
Fiber board masonite 70
Fiber board masonite 70 LW 0.88 9
Fiber board particle board 70
Fiber board particle board 70 LW 0.89 9
Fiber board porous, untreated 20
Gold polished 130 T 0.018 1
Gold polished, carefully
Gold
Granite
Granite rough 21 LLW 0.879 8
Granite rough, 4 different
Granite rough, 4 different
Gypsum
Ice: See Water
Iron and steel cold rolled 70
Iron and steel cold rolled 70 LW 0.09 9
Iron and steel covered with red
Iron and steel electrolytic 100 T 0.05 4
Iron and steel electrolytic 22 T 0.05 4
Iron and steel electrolytic 260 T 0.07 4
Iron and steel electrolytic, care-
Iron and steel freshly worked
Iron and steel ground sheet 950–1100 T 0.55–0.61 1
Iron and steel heavily rusted
Iron and steel hot rolled 130 T 0.60 1
Iron and steel hot rolled 20 T 0.77 1
Iron and steel oxidized 100 T 0.74 4
Iron and steel oxidized 100 T 0.74 1
Iron and steel oxidized 1227 T 0.89 4
Iron and steel oxidized 125–525 T 0.78–0.82 1
Iron and steel oxidized 200 T 0.79 2
Iron and steel oxidized 200–600 T 0.80 1
coarse 80 T 0.85 1
SW
SW
SW
SW
200–600 T 0.02–0.03 1
polished, highly 100 T 0.02 2
polished 20 LLW 0.849 8
samples
70
70 LW 0.77–0.87 9
samples
20 T 0.8–0.9 1
20 T 0.61–0.85 1
rust
175–225 T 0.05–0.06 1
fully polished
20 T 0.24 1
with emery
20 T 0.69 2
sheet
SW
SW
0.85 6
0.75 9
0.77 9
0.85 6
0.95–0.97 9
0.20 9
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Table 18.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:
Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Iron and steel oxidized strongly 50 T 0.88 1
Iron and steel oxidized strongly 500 T 0.98 1
Iron and steel polished 100 T 0.07 2
Iron and steel polished 400–1000 T 0.14–0.38 1
Iron and steel polished sheet 750–1050 T 0.52–0.56 1
Iron and steel rolled sheet 50 T 0.56 1
Iron and steel rolled, freshly
Iron and steel rough, plane
Iron and steel rusted red, sheet 22 T 0.69 4
Iron and steel rusted, heavily 17
Iron and steel rusty, red 20 T 0.69 1
Iron and steel shiny oxide layer,
Iron and steel shiny, etched 150 T 0.16 1
Iron and steel wrought, carefully
Iron galvanized heavily oxidized 70
Iron galvanized heavily oxidized 70 LW 0.85 9
Iron galvanized sheet 92 T 0.07 4
Iron galvanized sheet, burnished 30 T 0.23 1
Iron galvanized sheet, oxidized 20 T 0.28 1
Iron tinned sheet 24 T 0.064 4
Iron, cast casting 50 T 0.81 1
Iron, cast ingots 1000 T 0.95 1
Iron, cast liquid 1300 T 0.28 1
Iron, cast machined 800–1000 T 0.60–0.70 1
Iron, cast oxidized 100 T 0.64 2
Iron, cast oxidized 260 T 0.66 4
Iron, cast oxidized 38 T 0.63 4
Iron, cast oxidized 538 T 0.76 4
Iron, cast oxidized at 600°C
Iron, cast polished 200 T 0.21 1
Iron, cast polished 38 T 0.21 4
Iron, cast polished 40 T 0.21 2
Iron, cast unworked 900–1100 T 0.87–0.95 1
Krylon Ultra-flat
black 1602
Krylon Ultra-flat
black 1602
surface
sheet,
polished
Flat black Room tempera-
Flat black Room tempera-
20 T 0.24 1
50 T 0.95–0.98 1
SW
20 T 0.82 1
40–250 T 0.28 1
SW
200–600 T 0.64–0.78 1
LW ≈ 0.96 12
ture up to 175
MW ≈ 0.97 12
ture up to 175
0.96 5
0.64 9
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Table 18.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:
Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Lacquer 3 colors sprayed
Lacquer 3 colors sprayed
Lacquer Aluminum on
Lacquer bakelite 80 T 0.83 1
Lacquer black, dull 40–100 T 0.96–0.98 1
Lacquer black, matte 100 T 0.97 2
Lacquer black, shiny,
Lacquer heat–resistant 100 T 0.92 1
Lacquer white 100 T 0.92 2
Lacquer white 40–100 T 0.8–0.95 1
Lead oxidized at 200°C
Lead oxidized, gray 20 T 0.28 1
Lead oxidized, gray 22 T 0.28 4
Lead shiny 250 T 0.08 1
Lead unoxidized,
Lead red 100 T 0.93 4
Lead red, powder 100 T 0.93 1
Leather tanned T 0.75–0.80 1
Lime T 0.3–0.4 1
Magnesium 22 T 0.07 4
Magnesium 260 T 0.13 4
Magnesium 538 T 0.18 4
Magnesium polished 20 T 0.07 2
Magnesium
powder
Molybdenum 1500–2200 T 0.19–0.26 1
Molybdenum 600–1000 T 0.08–0.13 1
Molybdenum filament
Mortar 17
Mortar dry 36
Nextel Velvet 81121 Black
Nichrome rolled 700 T 0.25 1
Nichrome sandblasted 700 T 0.70 1
Nichrome wire, clean 50 T 0.65 1
Nichrome wire, clean 500–1000 T 0.71–0.79 1
Nichrome wire, oxidized 50–500 T 0.95–0.98 1
on Aluminum
on Aluminum
rough surface
sprayed on iron
polished
Flat black –60–150 LW > 0.97 10 and
70
70 LW 0.92–0.94 9
20 T 0.4 1
20 T 0.87 1
200 T 0.63 1
100 T 0.05 4
700–2500 T 0.1–0.3 1
SW
T 0.86 1
SW
SW
0.50–0.53 9
0.87 5
0.94 7
11
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Table 18.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:
Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Nickel bright matte 122 T 0.041 4
Nickel commercially
Nickel commercially
Nickel electrolytic 22 T 0.04 4
Nickel electrolytic 260 T 0.07 4
Nickel electrolytic 38 T 0.06 4
Nickel electrolytic 538 T 0.10 4
Nickel electroplated on
Nickel electroplated on
Nickel electroplated on
Nickel electroplated,
Nickel oxidized 1227 T 0.85 4
Nickel oxidized 200 T 0.37 2
Nickel oxidized 227 T 0.37 4
Nickel oxidized at 600°C
Nickel polished 122 T 0.045 4
Nickel wire 200–1000 T 0.1–0.2 1
Nickel oxide 1000–1250 T 0.75–0.86 1
Nickel oxide 500–650 T 0.52–0.59 1
Oil, lubricating 0.025 mm film
Oil, lubricating 0.050 mm film
Oil, lubricating 0.125 mm film
Oil, lubricating film on Ni base: Ni
Oil, lubricating
Paint 8 different colors
Paint 8 different colors
Paint Aluminum, various
Paint cadmium yellow T 0.28–0.33 1
Paint chrome green T 0.65–0.70 1
Paint cobalt blue T 0.7–0.8 1
Paint oil 17
Paint oil based, average
pure, polished
pure, polished
iron, polished
iron, unpolished
iron, unpolished
polished
base only
thick coating 20 T 0.82 2
and qualities
and qualities
ages
of 16 colors
100 T 0.045 1
200–400 T 0.07–0.09 1
22 T 0.045 4
20 T 0.11–0.40 1
22 T 0.11 4
20 T 0.05 2
200–600 T 0.37–0.48 1
20 T 0.27 2
20 T 0.46 2
20 T 0.72 2
20 T 0.05 2
70
70 LW 0.92–0.94 9
50–100 T 0.27–0.67 1
100 T 0.94 2
SW
SW
0.88–0.96 9
0.87 5
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Emissivity tables18
Table 18.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:
Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Paint oil, black flat
Paint oil, black gloss 20
Paint oil, gray flat
Paint oil, gray gloss 20
Paint oil, various colors 100 T 0.92–0.96 1
Paint plastic, black 20
Paint plastic, white 20
Paper 4 different colors
Paper 4 different colors
Paper black T 0.90 1
Paper black, dull T 0.94 1
Paper black, dull 70
Paper black, dull 70 LW 0.89 9
Paper blue, dark T 0.84 1
Paper coated with black
Paper
Paper red T 0.76 1
Paper white 20 T 0.7–0.9 1
Paper white bond 20 T 0.93 2
Paper white, 3 different
Paper white, 3 different
Paper yellow T 0.72 1
Plaster 17
Plaster plasterboard,
Plaster rough coat 20 T 0.91 2
Plastic glass fibre lami-
Plastic glass fibre lami-
Plastic polyurethane iso-
Plastic polyurethane iso-
Plastic PVC, plastic floor,
Plastic
lacquer
green
glosses
glosses
untreated
nate (printed circ.
board)
nate (printed circ.
board)
lation board
lation board
dull, structured
PVC, plastic floor,
dull, structured
20
20
70
70 LW 0.92–0.94 9
70
70 LW 0.88–0.90 9
20
70
70 LW 0.91 9
70 LW 0.55 9
70
70
70 LW 0.93 9
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
T 0.93 1
T 0.85 1
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
0.94 6
0.92 6
0.97 6
0.96 6
0.95 6
0.84 6
0.68–0.74 9
0.86 9
0.76–0.78 9
0.86 5
0.90 6
0.94 9
0.29 9
0.94 9
#T559918; r. AA/20829/20829; en-US
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Emissivity tables18
Table 18.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:
Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Platinum 100 T 0.05 4
Platinum 1000–1500 T 0.14–0.18 1
Platinum 1094 T 0.18 4
Platinum 17 T 0.016 4
Platinum 22 T 0.03 4
Platinum 260 T 0.06 4
Platinum 538 T 0.10 4
Platinum pure, polished 200–600 T 0.05–0.10 1
Platinum ribbon 900–1100 T 0.12–0.17 1
Platinum wire 1400 T 0.18 1
Platinum wire 500–1000 T 0.10–0.16 1
Platinum wire 50–200 T 0.06–0.07 1
Porcelain glazed 20 T 0.92 1
Porcelain white, shiny T 0.70–0.75 1
Rubber hard 20 T 0.95 1
Rubber soft, gray, rough
Sand T 0.60 1
Sand
Sandstone polished 19 LLW 0.909 8
Sandstone
Silver polished 100 T 0.03 2
Silver
Skin human 32 T 0.98 2
Slag boiler 0–100 T 0.97–0.93 1
Slag
Slag
Slag boiler 600–1200 T 0.76–0.70 1
Snow: See Water
Soil dry 20 T 0.92 2
Soil
Stainless steel alloy, 8% Ni, 18%
Stainless steel
Stainless steel sandblasted 700 T 0.70 1
Stainless steel sheet, polished 70 SW
Stainless steel
Stainless steel sheet, untreated,
rough 19 LLW 0.935 8
pure, polished 200–600 T 0.02–0.03 1
boiler 1400–1800 T 0.69–0.67 1
boiler 200–500 T 0.89–0.78 1
saturated with
water
Cr
rolled 700 T 0.45 1
sheet, polished 70 LW 0.14 9
somewhat
scratched
20 T 0.95 1
20 T 0.90 2
20 T 0.95 2
500 T 0.35 1
0.18 9
70
SW
0.30 9
#T559918; r. AA/20829/20829; en-US
67
Emissivity tables18
Table 18.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:
Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Stainless steel
Stainless steel type 18-8, buffed
Stainless steel type 18-8, oxi-
Stucco rough, lime 10–90 T 0.91 1
Styrofoam insulation 37 SW
Tar T 0.79–0.84 1
Tar
Tile glazed 17
Tin burnished 20–50 T 0.04–0.06 1
Tin tin–plated sheet
Titanium oxidized at 540°C
Titanium
Titanium oxidized at 540°C
Titanium polished 1000 T 0.36 1
Titanium polished 200 T 0.15 1
Titanium polished 500 T 0.20 1
Tungsten 1500–2200 T 0.24–0.31 1
Tungsten 200 T 0.05 1
Tungsten 600–1000 T 0.1–0.16 1
Tungsten filament
Varnish flat
Varnish on oak parquet
Varnish on oak parquet
Wallpaper slight pattern, light
Wallpaper slight pattern, red 20
Water distilled 20 T 0.96 2
Water frost crystals
Water ice, covered with
Water ice, smooth 0 T 0.97 1
Water ice, smooth –10 T 0.96 2
Water layer >0.1 mm
Water
Water
Wood 17
sheet, untreated,
somewhat
scratched
dized at 800°C
paper 20 T 0.91–0.93 1
iron
oxidized at 540°C
floor
floor
gray
heavy frost
thick
snow
snow –10 T 0.85 2
70 LW 0.28 9
20 T 0.16 2
60 T 0.85 2
0.60 7
SW
100 T 0.07 2
1000 T 0.60 1
200 T 0.40 1
500 T 0.50 1
3300 T 0.39 1
20
70
70 LW 0.90–0.93 9
20
–10 T 0.98 2
0 T 0.98 1
0–100 T 0.95–0.98 1
SW
SW
SW
SW
T 0.8 1
SW
0.94 5
0.93 6
0.90 9
0.85 6
0.90 6
0.98 5
#T559918; r. AA/20829/20829; en-US
68
Emissivity tables18
Table 18.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:
Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Wood 19 LLW 0.962 8
Wood ground T 0.5–0.7 1
Wood pine, 4 different
samples
Wood pine, 4 different
samples
Wood planed 20 T 0.8–0.9 1
Wood planed oak 20 T 0.90 2
Wood planed oak 70
Wood planed oak 70 LW 0.88 9
Wood plywood, smooth,
dry
Wood plywood,
untreated
Wood white, damp 20 T 0.7–0.8 1
Zinc oxidized at 400°C
Zinc oxidized surface
Zinc polished 200–300 T 0.04–0.05 1
Zinc sheet 50 T 0.20 1
70
70 LW 0.81–0.89 9
36
20
400 T 0.11 1
1000–1200 T 0.50–0.60 1
SW
SW
SW
SW
0.67–0.75 9
0.77 9
0.82 7
0.83 6
#T559918; r. AA/20829/20829; en-US
69
Corporate Headquarters
last page
FLIR Systems, Inc.
27700 SW Parkway Ave.
Wilsonville, OR 97070
USA
Telephone: +1-503-498-3547
Website
http://www.flir.com
Customer support
http://support.flir.com
Copyright
© 2014, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide.
Disclaimer
Specifications subject to change without further notice. Models and accessories subject to regional market considerations. License procedures may apply. Products
described herein may be subject to US Export Regulations. Please refer to exportquestions@flir.com with any questions.
Publ. No.: T559918
Release: AA
Commit:
Head: 20829
Language: en-US
Modified: 2014-11-17
Formatted: 2014-11-17
20829
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