PASCO TD-8564 User Manual
Includes
Teacher's Notes
and
Typical
Experiment Results
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Instruction Manual and
Experiment Guide for
the PASCO scientific
Model TD-8564
APPARATUS
012-05443A
3/94
12.9
12.9
12.4
12.4
12.0
12.0
11.6
11.6
11.2
11.2
10.8
10.8
10.4
10.4
KΩ
KΩ
scientific
5Ω±1%
5Ω±1%
12 VDC MAX
12 VDC MAX
T
°C
°C
KΩ
KΩ
75
75
9.12
9.12
76
76
8.81
8.81
77
77
8.52
8.52
78
78
8.24
8.24
79
79
7.96
7.96
80
80
7.70
7.70
81
81
7.45
7.45
Cold
Reservoir
c
°C
°C
KΩ
KΩ
°C
°C
85
85
6.53
6.53
95
95
86
86
6.33
6.33
96
96
87
87
6.12
6.12
97
97
88
88
5.93
5.93
98
98
89
89
5.74
5.74
99
99
90
90
5.56
5.56
100
100
91
91
5.39
5.39
101
101
Hot
Reservoir
Q
c
W
Q
h
Heat
Engine
T
h
WATER
WATER
PUMP
PUMP
7.5 - 12 VDC
7.5 - 12 VDC
@500mA
@500mA
KΩ
KΩ
°C
°C
461
461
-5
-5
436
436
-4
-4
413
413
-3
-3
391
391
-2
-2
370
370
-1
-1
351
351
0
0
332
332
1
1
PASCO
Model TD-8564
Model TD-8564
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
APPARATUS
27.4
27.4
26.4
26.4
25.3
25.3
24.4
24.4
23.4
23.4
22.5
22.5
21.7
21.7
KΩ
KΩ
°C
°C
55
55
56
56
57
57
58
58
59
59
60
60
61
61
APPARATUS
HEATER
2.0Ω2.0Ω1.0Ω1.0Ω0.5Ω0.5Ω
KΩ
KΩ
°C
°C
18.6
18.6
65
65
17.9
17.9
66
66
17.3
17.3
67
67
16.6
16.6
68
68
16.0
16.0
69
69
15.5
15.5
70
70
14.9
14.9
71
71
THERMISTOR
THERMISTOR
SELECT
SELECT
PELTIER
PELTIER
DEVICE
DEVICE
COOLING
COOLING
WATER
WATER
THERMISTOR TABLETHERMISTOR TABLE
KΩ
KΩ
°C
KΩ
KΩ
°C
°C
KΩ
KΩ
°C
°C
KΩ
KΩ
°C
°C
KΩ
269
269
5
5
161
161
15
255
255
242
242
230
230
218
218
207
207
197
197
15
6
6
153
153
16
16
7
7
146
146
17
17
8
8
139
139
18
18
9
9
133
133
19
19
10
10
126
126
20
20
11
11
120
120
21
21
95.4
95.4
91.1
91.1
87.0
87.0
83.1
83.1
79.4
79.4
75.9
75.9
KΩ
100
100
25
25
63.4
63.4
26
26
60.7
60.7
27
27
58.1
58.1
28
28
55.6
55.6
29
29
53.2
53.2
30
30
51.0
51.0
31
31
48.9
48.9
°C
°C
°C
41.2
41.2
45
45
35
35
39.6
39.6
46
46
36
36
37.9
37.9
47
47
37
37
36.4
36.4
48
48
38
38
34.9
34.9
49
49
39
39
33.5
33.5
50
50
40
40
32.2
32.2
51
51
41
41
© 1991 PASCO scientific $10.00
012-05443A Thermal Efficiency Apparatus
T able of Contents
Copyright, Warranty and Equipment Return...................................................ii
Introduction .....................................................................................................1
Quick Start.......................................................................................................2
Theory ............................................................................................................. 3
HEAT ENGINE:
Introduction ...............................................................................................3
Actual Efficiency.......................................................................................3
Carnot Efficiency.......................................................................................3
Adjusted Efficiency ...................................................................................3
HEAT PUMP (REFRIGERATOR):
Introduction ...............................................................................................4
Actual Coefficient of Performance............................................................ 4
Maximum Coefficient of Performance...................................................... 4
Adjusted Coefficient of Performance ........................................................4
MEASUREMENTS USING THE THERMAL EFFICIENCY APPARATUS:
Direct Measurements.................................................................................5
Temperatures .......................................................................................5
Power Delivered to the Hot Reservoir (PH) ......................................... 6
Power Dissipated by the Load Resistor (PW)....................................... 6
Indirect Measurements ..............................................................................6
Internal Resistance...............................................................................6
Heat Conduction and Radiation...........................................................6
Heat Pumped from the Cold Reservoir................................................7
EXPERIMENTS:
1 — Heat Engine and Temperature Difference ......................................... 9
2 — Heat Engine Efficiency (Detailed Study) .........................................13
3 — Heat Pump Coefficient of Performance............................................17
4 — Thermal Conductivity.......................................................................20
5 — Load for Optimum Performance.......................................................21
Teacher’s Guide..............................................................................................25
Technical Support................................................................. Inside Back Cover
i
Thermal Efficiency Apparatus 012-05443A
Copyright, Warranty and Equipment Return
Please—Feel free to duplicate this manual
subject to the copyright restrictions below.
Copyright Notice
The PASCO scientific Model TD-8564 Thermal Efficiency Apparatus manual is copyrighted and all rights
reserved. However, permission is granted to non-profit
educational institutions for reproduction of any part of
this manual providing the reproductions are used only for
their laboratories and are not sold for profit. Reproduction under any other circumstances, without the written
consent of PASCO scientific, is prohibited.
Limited Warranty
PASCO scientific warrants this product to be free from
defects in materials and workmanship for a period of one
year from the date of shipment to the customer. PASCO
will repair or replace, at its option, any part of the product
which is deemed to be defective in material or workmanship. This warranty does not cover damage to the product
caused by abuse or improper use. Determination of
whether a product failure is the result of a manufacturing
defect or improper use by the customer shall be made
solely by PASCO scientific. Responsibility for the return
of equipment for warranty repair belongs to the customer.
Equipment must be properly packed to prevent damage
and shipped postage or freight prepaid. (Damage caused
by improper packing of the equipment for return shipment will not be covered by the warranty.) Shipping
costs for returning the equipment, after repair, will be
paid by PASCO scientific.
Equipment Return
Should the product have to be returned to PASCO
scientific for any reason, notify PASCO scientific by
letter, phone, or fax BEFORE returning the product.
Upon notification, the return authorization and
shipping instructions will be promptly issued.
ä
NOTE: NO EQUIPMENT WILL BE
ACCEPTED FOR RETURN WITHOUT AN
AUTHORIZATION FROM PASCO.
When returning equipment for repair, the units
must be packed properly. Carriers will not accept
responsibility for damage caused by improper
packing. To be certain the unit will not be
damaged in shipment, observe the following rules:
➀ The packing carton must be strong enough for the
item shipped.
➁ Make certain there are at least two inches of
packing material between any point on the
apparatus and the inside walls of the carton.
➂ Make certain that the packing material cannot shift
in the box or become compressed, allowing the
instrument come in contact with the packing
carton.
Credits
This manual authored by: Ann Hanks
This manual edited by: Ann Hanks and Eric Ayars
Teacher’s Guide written by: Eric Ayars
Address: PASCO scientific
10101 Foothills Blvd.
Roseville, CA 95747-7100
Phone: (916) 786-3800
FAX: (916) 786-3292
email: techsupp@pasco.com
web: www.pasco.com
ii
012-05443A Thermal Efficiency Apparatus
Introduction
The Thermal Efficiency Apparatus can be used as a
heat engine or a heat pump. When used as a heat
engine, heat from the hot reservoir is used to do work
by running a current through a load resistor. The
actual efficiency of this real heat engine can be obtained and compared to the theoretical maximum
efficiency . When used as a heat pump to transfer heat
from the cold reservoir to the hot reservoir, the actual
coefficient of performance and the theoretical maximum coefficient of performance can be obtained.
The apparatus is built around a thermoelectric converter called a Peltier device. To simulate the theoretical heat engines found in textbooks which have infinite
hot and cold reservoirs, one side of the Peltier device
is maintained at a constant cold temperature by pumping ice water through the block and the other side of
the Peltier device is maintained at a constant hot
temperature using a heater resistor imbedded in the
block. The temperatures are measured with thermistors which are imbedded in the hot and cold blocks.
Additional Equipment Needed
Then, in 1834, Jean-Charles-Athanase Peltier discovered the opposite of the Seebeck Effect, that a current
flowing through a junction of dissimilar metals causes
heat to be absorbed or freed, depending on the direction in which the current is flowing.
2
Since the Thermal Efficiency Apparatus is operated in this manner
the thermoelectric converter is called a Peltier device.
However, the Thermal Efficiency Apparatus also
exhibits the Seebeck Effect because the two sides of
the device are maintained at different temperatures.
Today the Seebeck Effect is achieved using pn junctions. The arrangement of the dissimilar semiconductors is as seen in Figure 1. If the left side of the device
is maintained at a higher temperature than the right
side, then holes generated near the junction drift across
the junction into the p region and electrons drift into
the n region. At the cold junction on the right side, the
same process occurs but at a slower rate so the net
effect is a flow of electrons in the n region from the
hot side to the cold side. Thus there is a current from
the cold side to hot side in the n region.
3
To perform the experiments in this manual, you will
need the following equipment in addition to the
Thermal Efficiency Apparatus.
• 1 DC power supply capable of 2.5A at 12V
(SF-9584)
• 3 kg (7 lbs) ice and a bucket for the ice-water bath
• Ohmmeter (SB-9624)
• 1 Ammeter (up to 3A) (SB-9624A)
• 2 Voltmeters (SB-9624A)
• Patch Cords (SE-9750-51)
History
The principle upon which the Thermal Efficiency
Apparatus operates has been known since the 1800’s
but has only become practical since the recent development of semiconductors.
In 1821 the Russian-German physicist Thomas Johann
Seebeck discovered that when a junction of dissimilar
metals is heated, a current is produced.
enon is now known as the Seebeck Effect and is the
basis of the thermocouple.
1
This phenom-
Cold
)
(T
Hot
(Th)
p
n
p
n
Copper
Figure 1: Arrangement of Thermocouples
1
Timetables of Science, by Alexander Hellemans and
c
I
I
I
I
I
Load resistor
Bryan Bunch, Simon & Schuster, NY, 1988, p.281.
2
IBID, p.301.
3
Circuits, Devices, and Systems, 3rd ed., by Ralph J.
Smith, Wiley, 1976, p.543.
1
Thermal Efficiency Apparatus 012-05443A
Quick Start
The following sections of this manual are essential to
operate the Thermal Efficiency Apparatus and will
give the user the minimum amount of information
necessary to get started quickly:
Theory
Heat Engine
• Introduction
• Actual Efficiency
• Carnot Efficiency
Measurements Using the Thermal
Efficiency Apparatus
Direct Measurements
• Temperatures
• Power to the Hot Reservoir
• Power Used by the Load Resistor
Experiment — 1: Heat Engine Efficiency
and Temperature Difference
The other portions of the manual provide a more
detailed explanation of the operation of the Thermal
Efficiency Apparatus in other modes as well as the
heat engine mode.
2
012-05443A Thermal Efficiency Apparatus
Theory
Heat Engine
Introduction
A heat engine uses the temperature difference between
a hot reservoir and a cold reservoir to do work. Usually the reservoirs are assumed to be very large in size
so the temperature of the reservoir remains constant
regardless of the amount of heat extracted or delivered
to the reservoir. This is accomplished in the Thermal
Efficiency Apparatus by supplying heat to the hot side
using a heating resistor and by extracting heat from the
cold side using ice water.
In the case of the Thermal Efficiency Apparatus, the
heat engine does work by running a current through a
load resistor. The work is ultimately converted into
heat which is dissipated by the load resistor (Joule
heating).
A heat engine can be represented by a diagram (Figure
2). The law of Conservation of Energy (First Law of
Thermodynamics) leads to the conclusion that
Q
= W + QC, the heat input to the engine equals the
H
work done by the heat engine on its surroundings plus
the heat exhausted to the cold reservoir.
Cold
Reservoir
Q
c
Q
Hot
Reservoir
h
➤ NOTE: Since you will be measuring the rates
at which energy is transferred or used by the
Thermal Efficiency Apparatus all measurements
will be power rather than energy. So
P
= dQH/dt and then the equation
H
QH = W + QC becomes PH=PW+PC and the
efficiency becomes
P
W
e =
P
H
Carnot Efficiency
Carnot showed that the maximum efficiency of a heat
engine depends only on the temperatures between
which the engine operates, not on the type of engine.
– T
T
H
e
=
Carnot
where the temperatures must be in Kelvin. The only
engines which can be 100% efficient are ones which
operate between TH and absolute zero. The Carnot
efficiency is the best a heat engine can do for a given
pair of temperatures, assuming there are no energy
losses due to friction, heat conduction, heat radiation,
and Joule heating of the internal resistance of the
device.
C
T
H
T
c
W
Figure 2: Heat Engine
Heat
Engine
T
h
Actual Efficiency
The efficiency of the heat engine is defined to be the
work done divided by the heat input
W
e =
Q
H
So if all the heat input was converted to useful work,
the engine would have an efficiency of one (100%
efficient). Thus, the efficiency is always less than one.
Adjusted Efficiency
Using the Thermal Efficiency Apparatus, you can
account for the energy losses and add them back into
the powers PW and PH. This shows that, as all losses
are accounted for, the resulting adjusted efficiency
approaches the Carnot efficiency, showing that the
maximum efficiency possible is not 100%.
3
Thermal Efficiency Apparatus 012-05443A
W
Heat Pump (Refrigerator)
Introduction
A heat pump is a heat engine run in reverse. Normally,
when left alone, heat will flow from hot to cold. But a
heat pump does work to pump heat from the cold reservoir to the hot reservoir, just as a refrigerator pumps heat
out of its cold interior into the warmer room or a heat
pump in a house in winter pumps heat from the cold
outdoors into the warmer house.
In the case of the Thermal Efficiency Apparatus, heat is
pumped from the cold reservoir to the hot reservoir by
running a current into the Peltier device in the direction
opposite to the direction in which the Peltier device will
produce a current.
A heat pump is represented in a diagram such as Figure 3.
➤NOTE: The arrows are reversed compared to the
heat in Figure 2. By conservation of energy,
Q
+ W = QH,
or in terms of power
C
PC+PW=PH.
This is similar to efficiency because it is the ratio of
what is accomplished to how much energy was expended to do it. Notice that although the efficiency is
always less than one, the COP is always greater than
one.
Maximum Coefficient of Performance
As with the maximum efficiency of a heat engine, the
maximum COP of a heat pump is only dependent on
the temperatures.
T
=
TH– T
C
C
κ
max
where the temperatures are in Kelvin.
Adjusted Coefficient of Performance
If all losses due to friction, heat conduction, radiation,
and Joule heating are accounted for, the actual COP
can be adjusted so it approaches the maximum COP.
Ohmmeter
Ω
h
Hot
Reservoir
T
h
Cold
Reservoir
T
c
Q
c
W
Q
Heat
Pump
Figure 3: Heat Pump
Actual Coefficient of Performance
Instead of defining an efficiency as is done for a heat
engine, a coefficient of performance (COP) is defined
for a heat pump. The COP is the heat pumped from the
cold reservoir divided by the work required to pump it
P
κ
= COP =
C
.
P
9V Power
Supply In
Rubber
Hoses
WATER
PUMP
7.5 - 12 VDC
@500mA
In
COOLING
WATER
THERMISTOR
SELECT
PELTIER
DEVICE
Out
THERMISTOR TABLE
KΩ
°C
KΩ
°C
KΩ
°C
KΩ
°C
KΩ
°C
461
-5
269
5
436
413
391
370
351
332
315
298
283
161
-4
255
6
153
-3
242
7
146
-2
230
8
139
-1
218
9
133
0
207
10
126
1
197
11
120
2
187
12
115
3
178
13
109
4
169
14
104
KΩ
15
100
25
63.4
16
95.4
26
60.7
17
91.1
27
58.1
18
87.0
28
55.6
19
83.1
29
53.2
20
79.4
30
51.0
21
75.9
31
48.9
22
72.5
32
46.8
23
69.3
33
44.9
24
66.3
34
43.0
KΩ
°C
41.2
45
27.4
35
39.6
46
26.4
36
37.9
47
25.3
37
36.4
48
24.4
38
34.9
49
23.4
39
33.5
50
22.5
40
32.2
51
21.7
41
30.9
52
20.9
42
29.7
53
20.1
43
28.5
54
19.3
44
Figure 4: Thermal Efficiency Apparatus
scientific
PASCO
Model TD-8564
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
APPARATUS
HEATE R
°C
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
5Ω±1%
12 VDC MAX
2.0Ω1.0Ω0.5Ω
KΩ
°C
KΩ
°C
18.6
65
12.9
75
17.9
66
12.4
76
17.3
67
12.0
77
16.6
68
11.6
78
16.0
69
11.2
79
15.5
70
10.8
80
14.9
71
10.4
81
14.4
72
10.1
82
13.8
73
9.76
83
13.4
74
9.43
84
KΩ
°C
KΩ
°C
9.12
85
6.53
95
8.81
86
6.33
96
8.52
87
6.12
97
8.24
88
5.93
98
7.96
89
5.74
99
7.70
90
5.56
100
7.45
91
5.39
101
7.21
92
5.22
102
6.98
93
5.06
103
6.75
94
4.91
104
4
012-05443A Thermal Efficiency Apparatus
C
Measurements Using the Thermal Efficiency Apparatus
Direct Measurements
Three quantities may be directly measured with the
Thermal Efficiency Apparatus: temperatures, the power
delivered to the hot reservoir, and the power dissipated by
the load resistors. The details of how these measurements
are made follow.
Temperatures
The temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs are
determined by measuring the resistance of the thermistor
imbedded in the hot or cold block. To do this, connect an
ohmmeter to the terminals located as shown in Figure 4.
The switch toggles between the hot side and the cold side.
The thermistor reading can be converted to a temperature
Table 1: Resistance to Temperature Conversion Chart
kΩ °C kΩ °C kΩ °C kΩ °C kΩ °C
461 -5
436 -4
413 -3
146 17
139 18
133 19
53.2 39
51.0 40
48.9 41
by using the chart located on the front of the Thermal
Efficiency Apparatus and in Table 1. Notice that as the
temperature increases, the thermistor resistance decreases
(100 kΩ is a higher temperature than 200 kΩ).
➤ NOTE: To get the exact temperature reading
the user must interpolate between numbers on the
chart. For example, suppose the ohmmeter reads
118.7 kΩ. This reading lies between
120 kΩ = 21°C and 115 kΩ = 22°C. The reading is
120-118.7 = 1.3 kΩ above 21°C which is
1.3kΩ×
1°C
120 – 115kΩ
= 0.26°
Therefore 118.7 kΩ is 21.26°C.
21.7 61
20.9 62
20.1 63
9.76 83
9.43 84
9.12 85
391 -2
370 -1
351 0
332 1
315 2
298 3
283 4
269 5
255 6
242 7
230 8
218 9
207 10
197 11
187 12
178 13
169 14
161 15
126 20
120 21
115 22
109 23
104 24
100 25
95.4 26
91.1 27
87.0 28
83.1 29
79.4 30
75.9 31
72.5 32
69.3 33
66.3 34
63.4 35
60.7 36
58.1 37
46.8 42
44.9 43
43.0 44
41.2 45
39.6 46
37.9 47
36.4 48
34.9 49
33.5 50
32.2 51
30.9 52
29.7 53
28.5 54
27.4 55
26.4 56
25.3 57
24.4 58
23.4 59
19.3 64
18.6 65
17.9 66
17.3 67
16.6 68
16.0 69
15.5 70
14.9 71
14.4 72
13.8 73
13.4 74
12.9 75
12.4 76
12.0 77
11.6 78
11.2 79
10.8 80
10.4 81
8.81 86
8.52 87
8.24 88
7.96 89
7.70 90
7.45 91
7.21 92
6.98 93
6.75 94
6.53 95
6.33 96
6.12 97
5.93 98
5.74 99
5.56 100
5.39 101
5.22 102
5.06 103
153 16
55.6 38
22.5 60
5
10.1 82
4.91 104
Thermal Efficiency Apparatus 012-05443A
Power Delivered to the Hot Reservoir (PH)
The hot reservoir is maintained at a constant temperature
by running a current through a resistor. Since the resistance changes with temperature, it is necessary to measure the current and the voltage to obtain the power input.
Then P
= IHVH.
H
Power Dissipated by the Load Resistor (PW)
The power dissipated by the load resistor is determined
by measuring the voltage drop across the known load
resistance and using the formula
2
V
PW=
.
R
The load resistors have a tolerance of 1%.
2
V
➤ NOTE: We may use the equation
PW=
for
R
measuring the power in the load resistor because
the temperature (and therefore resistance) of this
resistor does not change significantly. We may not
use this equation to measure power in the heating
resistor, since its temperature (and resistance)
changes.
When the Thermal Efficiency Apparatus is operated as a
heat pump rather than as a heat engine, the load resistors
are not used so it is necessary to measure both the current
and the voltage. So the current into the Peltier device is
measured with an ammeter, and the voltage across the
Peltier device is measured with a voltmeter and the power
input is calculated with the formula P
= IWVW.
W
Indirect Measurements
It will be necessary to know three additional quantities in
the experiments:
device;
➁ The amount of heat conducted through the
device and the amount radiated away;
Figure 5: Procedure for Finding Internal Resistance
➀ The internal resistance of the Peltier
➂ The amount of
Peltier Device
R
r
V
l
l
V
s
heat pumped from the cold reservoir. These quantities
may be determined indirectly with the Thermal Efficiency Apparatus in the following ways.
Internal Resistance
Before the adjusted efficiency can be calculated, it is
necessary to calculate the internal resistance. This is
accomplished by measuring the voltage drop across the
Peltier device when an external load is applied.
First run the Thermal Efficiency Apparatus with a load
resistor (R) as in figure 6. The electrical equivalent of this
setup is shown in figure 5. Kirchoff’s Loop Rule gives
VS– Ir – IR =0
Next, run the Thermal Efficiency Apparatus with no load,
as in Figure 7. Since there is no current flowing through
the internal resistance of the Peltier Device, the voltage
drop across the internal resistance is zero and the voltage
measured will just be VS.
Since we have measured V
rather than I in the heat
w
engine mode, the equation above becomes
V
w
Vs–
r – Vw=0
R
Solving this for the internal resistance gives us
– V
V
s
r =
w
R
V
.
w
You may also find the resistance by measuring the
currents for two different load resistors and then solving
the resulting loop rule equations simultaneously.
Heat Conduction and Radiation
The heat that leaves the hot reservoir goes two places:
part of it is actually available to be used by the heat
engine to do work while the other part bypasses the
engine either by being radiated away from the hot
reservoir or by being conducted through the Peltier device
to the cold side. The portion of the heat which bypasses
the engine by radiation and conduction would be transferred in this same manner whether or not the device is
connected to a load and the heat engine is doing work.
The Thermal Efficiency Apparatus is run with a load
connected to measure P
disconnected and the power input into the hot reservoir is
adjusted to maintain the temperatures (less power is needed
when there is no load since less heat is being drawn from
the hot reservoir). See Figure 7. P
(Figure 6) and then the load is
H
is the power input
H(open)
6
012-05443A Thermal Efficiency Apparatus
to the hot reservoir when no load is present. Since, while
there is no load, the hot reservoir is maintained at an
equilibrium temperature, the heat put into the hot reservoir by the heating resistor must equal the heat radiated
and conducted away from the hot reservoir. So measuring
the heat input when there is no load determines the heat
loss due to radiation and conduction. It is assumed this
loss is the same when there is a load and the heat engine
is operating.
Heat Pumped from the Cold Reservoir
When the Thermal Efficiency Apparatus is operated as a
heat pump, conservation of energy yields that the rate at
which heat is pumped from the cold reservoir, PC, is equal
to the rate at which heat is delivered to the hot reservoir,
PH, minus the rate at which work is being done, P
W
(Figure 3).
Ω
The work can be measured directly but the heat delivered
to the hot reservoir has to be measured indirectly. Notice
that when the heat pump is operating, the temperature of
the hot reservoir remains constant. Therefore, the hot
reservoir must be in equilibrium and the heat delivered to
it must equal the heat being conducted and radiated away.
So a measurement of the heat conducted and radiated
away at a given temperature difference will also be a
measurement of the heat delivered to the hot reservoir.
The heat conducted and radiated is measured by running
the device with no load and measuring the heat input
needed to maintain the temperature of the hot side
(Figure 7).
T
H
Conducted
Power
V
Engine
Ω
A
Power
Supply
V
Figure 6: Heat Engine With A Load
V
A
Conducted
Power
PH (open)
Power
Supply
P
W
T
C
T
H
V
Figure 7: No Load
7
T
C
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