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User’s manual
FLIR Cx series
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User’s manual
FLIR Cx series
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Table of contents
1 Disclaimers ............ .. .. .. ................................. .. .. .. ............................. 1
1.1 Legal disclaimer ....................................................................... 1
1.2 Usage statistics ........................................................................1
1.3 Changes to registry ................................................................... 1
1.4 U.S. Government Regulations...................................................... 1
1.5 Copyright ................................................................................1
1.6 Quality assurance .....................................................................1
1.7 Patents...................................................................................1
1.8 EULA Terms ............................................................................1
1.9 EULA Terms ............................................................................1
2 Safety information .......... .. .. .. ................................. .. .. .. ......................3
3 Notice to user ......... .. .. .. ................................. .. .. .. ............................. 6
3.1 User-to-user forums .................................................................. 6
3.2 Calibration...............................................................................6
3.3 Accuracy ................................................................................ 6
3.4 Disposal of electronic waste........................................................ 6
3.5 Training .................................................................................. 6
3.6 Documentation updates ............................................................. 6
3.7 Important note about this manual.................................................. 6
3.8 Note about authoritative versions..................................................6
4 Customer help .............. .. .. .. ............................... .. .. .. ......................... 7
4.1 General ..................................................................................7
4.2 Submitting a question ................................................................7
4.3 Downloads ..............................................................................8
5 Quick Start Guide ................. .. .. ................................. .. .. .. ..................9
5.1 Procedure ............................................................................... 9
6 Description............ .. .. .. ................................. .. .. .............................. 10
6.1 View from the front .................................................................. 10
6.2 View from the rear................................................................... 10
6.3 Connector ............................................................................. 11
6.4 Screen elements .................................................................... 11
6.5 Auto-orientation...................................................................... 11
6.6 Navigating the menu system...................................................... 12
7 Operation ........ .. .. .. ................................. .. .. .. ................................. . 13
7.1 Charging the battery................................................................ 13
7.2 Turning on and turning off the camera.......................................... 13
7.3 Saving an image ..................................................................... 13
7.3.1 General...................................................................... 13
7.3.2 Image capacity ............................................................ 13
7.3.3 Naming convention....................................................... 13
7.3.4 Procedure .................................................................. 13
7.4 Recalling an image.................................................................. 13
7.4.1 General...................................................................... 13
7.4.2 Procedure .................................................................. 13
7.5 Deleting an image................................................................... 14
7.5.1 General...................................................................... 14
7.5.2 Procedure .................................................................. 14
7.6 Deleting all images.................................................................. 14
7.6.1 General...................................................................... 14
7.6.2 Procedure .................................................................. 14
7.7 Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter ................................. 15
7.7.1 General...................................................................... 15
7.8 Hiding measurement tools ........................................................ 15
7.8.1 Procedure .................................................................. 15
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7.9 Changing the color palette ........................................................ 15
7.9.1 General...................................................................... 15
7.9.2 Procedure .................................................................. 15
7.10 Changing the image mode ........................................................ 15
7.10.1 General...................................................................... 15
7.10.2 Procedure .................................................................. 16
7.11 Changing the temperature scale mode ........................................ 17
7.11.1 General...................................................................... 17
7.11.2 When to use Lock mode ................................................ 17
7.11.3 Procedure .................................................................. 17
7.12 Setting the emissivity ............................................................... 17
7.12.1 General...................................................................... 17
7.12.2 Procedure .................................................................. 17
7.13 Changing the reflected apparent temperature ............................... 18
7.13.1 General...................................................................... 18
7.13.2 Procedure .................................................................. 18
7.14 Changing the distance ............................................................. 18
7.14.1 General...................................................................... 18
7.14.2 Procedure .................................................................. 18
7.15 Performing a non-uniformity correction ........................................ 19
7.15.1 What is a non-uniformity correction?................................. 19
7.15.2 When to perform a non-uniformity correction ...................... 19
7.15.3 Procedure .................................................................. 19
7.16 Using the camera lamp ............................................................ 19
7.16.1 General...................................................................... 19
7.16.2 Procedure .................................................................. 19
7.17 Changing the settings .............................................................. 19
7.17.1 General...................................................................... 19
7.17.2 Procedure .................................................................. 20
7.18 Updating the camera ............................................................... 20
7.18.1 General...................................................................... 20
7.18.2 Procedure .................................................................. 20
8 Technical data ......... .. .. .. ................................. .. .. .. ........................... 21
8.1 Online field-of-view calculator .................................................... 21
8.2 Note about technical data ......................................................... 21
8.3 Note about authoritative versions................................................ 21
8.4 FLIR C2 ................................................................................ 22
9 Mechanical drawings .. .. .. .. ................................. .. .. .. ........................ 25
10 CE Declaration of conformity ............ .. .. .. ................................. .. .. ..... 26
11 Cleaning the camera.......... .. .. .. ................................. .. .. .. ................. 27
11.1 Camera housing, cables, and other items..................................... 27
11.1.1 Liquids....................................................................... 27
11.1.2 Equipment.................................................................. 27
11.1.3 Procedure .................................................................. 27
11.2 Infrared lens .......................................................................... 27
11.2.1 Liquids....................................................................... 27
11.2.2 Equipment.................................................................. 27
11.2.3 Procedure .................................................................. 27
12 Application examples.. .. ................................. .. .. .............................. 28
12.1 Moisture & water damage ......................................................... 28
12.1.1 General...................................................................... 28
12.1.2 Figure........................................................................ 28
12.2 Faulty contact in socket ............................................................ 28
12.2.1 General...................................................................... 28
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12.2.2 Figure........................................................................ 28
12.3 Oxidized socket...................................................................... 29
12.3.1 General...................................................................... 29
12.3.2 Figure........................................................................ 29
12.4 Insulation deficiencies.............................................................. 30
12.4.1 General...................................................................... 30
12.4.2 Figure........................................................................ 30
12.5 Draft .................................................................................... 31
12.5.1 General...................................................................... 31
12.5.2 Figure........................................................................ 31
13 About FLIR Systems .................. .. .. .. ................................. .. .. .. ......... 32
13.1 More than just an infrared camera .............................................. 33
13.2 Sharing our knowledge ............................................................ 33
13.3 Supporting our customers......................................................... 33
13.4 A few images from our facilities .................................................. 34
14 Glossary .... ..................................... .. ..................................... .. ...... 35
15 Thermographic measurement techniques .............................. .. .. .. ...... 38
15.1 Introduction .......................................................................... 38
15.2 Emissivity.............................................................................. 38
15.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample .................................... 38
15.3 Reflected apparent temperature ................................................. 41
15.4 Distance ............................................................................... 41
15.5 Relative humidity .................................................................... 41
15.6 Other parameters.................................................................... 41
16 History of infrared technology................................. .. .. .. .................... 43
17 Theory of thermography ................................. .. .. .............................. 46
17.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 46
17.2 The electromagnetic spectrum................................................... 46
17.3 Blackbody radiation................................................................. 46
17.3.1 Planck’s law ................................................................ 47
17.3.2 Wien’s displacement law................................................ 48
17.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's law ................................................. 49
17.3.4 Non-blackbody emitters................................................. 50
17.4 Infrared semi-transparent materials............................................. 52
18 The measurement formula....................... .. .. .. ............................... .. .. 53
19 Emissivity tables .. .. ................................. .. .. .. ................................. . 57
19.1 References............................................................................ 57
19.2 Tables .................................................................................. 57
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Disclaimers
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1.1 Legal disclaimer
All products manufactured by FLIR Systems are warranted against defective
materials and workmanship for a period of one (1) year from the delivery date
of the original purchase, provided such products have been under normal
storage, use and service, and in accordance with FLIR Systems instruction.
Uncooled handheld infrared cameras manufactured by FLIR Systemsare
warranted against defective materials andworkmanship for a period of two
(2) years from the delivery date of theoriginal purchase, provided such products have been under normalstorage, use and service, and in accordance
with FLIR Systems instruction, and provided that thecamera has been registered within 60 days of original purchase.
Detectors for uncooled handheld infrared cameras manufactured byFLIR
Systems are warranted against defective materials and workmanship for a
period of ten (10) years from the deliverydate of the original purchase, provided such products have been under normal storage,use and service, and
in accordance with FLIR Systems instruction, and providedthat the camera
has been registered within 60 days of original purchase.
Products which are not manufactured by FLIR Systems but included in systems delivered by FLIR Systems to the originalpurchaser, carry the warranty,
if any, of the particular supplieronly. FLIR Systems has no responsibility
whatsoever for such products.
The warranty extends only to the original purchaser andis not transferable. It
is not applicable to any product which has been subjected to misuse, neglect,
accident or abnormal conditions of operation. Expendable partsare excluded
from the warranty.
In the case of a defect in aproduct covered by this warranty the product must
not be further used in order to prevent additional damage. The purchaser
shall promptly report any defect to FLIR Systemsor thiswarranty will not
apply.
FLIR Systems will, at its option, repair orreplace any such defective product
free of charge if, upon inspection, it proves to bedefective in materialor workmanship and provided that it is returned toFLIR Systemswithin the said oneyear period.
FLIR Systems has no other obligation or liabilityfor defects than those set
forth above.
No other warranty is expressed or implied. FLIR Systems specifically disclaims the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular
purpose.
FLIR Systems shall not be liable for any direct, indirect, special, incidental or
consequential loss or damage, whether based on contract,tort orany other
legal theory.
This warranty shall be governed by Swedish law.
Any dispute, controversy or claim arisingout ofor in connection with this war-
ranty, shall be finally settled by arbitration in accordance with the Rules of the
Arbitration Institute of the StockholmChamber of Commerce. The place of arbitration shall be Stockholm. The language to be used in thearbitral proceedings shall be English.
1.2 Usage statistics
FLIR Systems reserves the right to gather anonymous usage statistics to help
maintain and improve the quality of our software and services.
1.3 Changes to registry
The registry entry HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet
\Control\Lsa\LmCompatibilityLevel will be automatically changed to level 2 if
the FLIR Camera Monitor service detects a FLIR camera connected to the
computer with a USB cable. The modification will only be executed if the
camera device implements a remote network service thatsupports network
logons.
1.4 U.S. Government Regulations
This product may be subject to U.S. Export Regulations.Please send any inquiries to exportquestions@flir.com.
1.5 Copyright
© 2015, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reservedworldwide. No parts of the
software including source code may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed
or translated into anylanguage or computer language in any form or by any
means, electronic, magnetic, optical, manualor otherwise,without the prior
written permission of FLIR Systems.
The documentation must not, in whole or part, be copied, photocopied,reproduced, translated or transmittedto any electronic medium or machine
readable form without prior consent, in writing, from FLIR Systems.
Names and marks appearing on the products herein are either registered
trademarks or trademarks ofFLIR Systems and/or its subsidiaries. Allother
trademarks, trade names or company names referenced herein are used for
identification only and are the property of theirrespective owners.
1.6 Quality assurance
The Quality Management System under which these products are developed
and manufactured has been certified in accordance with the ISO 9001
standard.
FLIR Systems is committed to a policy of continuous development; therefore
we reserve the right to make changes andimprovements on any of the products without prior notice.
1.7 Patents
One or several of thefollowing patents and/or design patents may apply to
the products and/or features. Additional pending patents and/orpending design patents may also apply.
000279476-0001; 000439161; 000499579-0001; 000653423; 000726344;
000859020; 001106306-0001; 001707738; 001707746; 001707787;
001776519; 001954074; 002021543; 002058180; 002249953; 002531178;
0600574-8; 1144833; 1182246; 1182620; 1285345; 1299699; 1325808;
1336775; 1391114; 1402918; 1404291; 1411581; 1415075; 1421497;
1458284; 1678485; 1732314; 2106017; 2107799; 2381417; 3006596;
3006597; 466540; 483782; 484155; 4889913; 5177595; 60122153.2;
602004011681.5-08; 6707044; 68657; 7034300; 7110035; 7154093;
7157705; 7237946; 7312822; 7332716; 7336823; 7544944; 7667198;
7809258 B2; 7826736; 8,153,971; 8,823,803; 8,853,631; 8018649 B2;
8212210 B2; 8289372; 8354639 B2; 8384783; 8520970; 8565547; 8595689;
8599262; 8654239; 8680468; 8803093; D540838; D549758; D579475;
D584755; D599,392; D615,113; D664,580; D664,581; D665,004; D665,440;
D677298; D710,424 S; D718801; DI6702302-9; DI6903617-9; DI7002221-6;
DI7002891-5; DI7002892-3; DI7005799-0; DM/057692; DM/061609; EP
2115696 B1; EP2315433; SE 0700240-5; US 8340414 B2; ZL
201330267619.5; ZL01823221.3; ZL01823226.4; ZL02331553.9;
ZL02331554.7; ZL200480034894.0; ZL200530120994.2;
ZL200610088759.5; ZL200630130114.4; ZL200730151141.4;
ZL200730339504.7; ZL200820105768.8; ZL200830128581.2;
ZL200880105236.4; ZL200880105769.2; ZL200930190061.9;
ZL201030176127.1; ZL201030176130.3; ZL201030176157.2;
ZL201030595931.3; ZL201130442354.9; ZL201230471744.3;
ZL201230620731.8.
1.8 EULA Terms
• Youhave acquired a device (“INFRARED CAMERA”) that includes software licensed by FLIR SystemsAB from Microsoft Licensing, GP or its
affiliates (“MS”). Those installed software products of MSorigin, as well
as associated media, printed materials, and “online” orelectronic documentation (“SOFTWARE”) are protected by international intellectual
property laws and treaties. The SOFTWARE is licensed, notsold. All
rights reserved.
• IF YOU DO NOT AGREE TO THIS END USERLICENSE AGREEMENT
(“EULA”), DO NOT USE THE DEVICE OR COPY THE SOFTWARE. INSTEAD, PROMPTLY CONTACT FLIR Systems AB FOR INSTRUCTIONS ON RETURN OF THE UNUSED DEVICE(S) FOR A REFUND.
ANY USE OF THE SOFTWARE, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
USE ON THE DEVICE, WILL CONSTITUTE YOUR AGREEMENT TO
THIS EULA (OR RATIFICATION OF ANY PREVIOUS CONSENT).
• GRANT OF SOFTWARE LICENSE. This EULAgrants you the following
license:
• Youmay use the SOFTWARE only on the DEVICE.
• NOT FAULT TOLERANT. THE SOFTWARE IS NOT FAULT TOL-
ERANT.FLIR SystemsAB HAS INDEPENDENTLYDETERMINED
HOW TO USE THE SOFTWARE IN THEDEVICE, AND MS HAS
RELIED UPON FLIR Systems AB TO CONDUCT SUFFICIENT
TESTING TO DETERMINE THAT THE SOFTWARE IS SUITABLE
FOR SUCH USE.
• NO WARRANTIES FOR THE SOFTWARE. THE SOFTWARE is
provided “AS IS” and with allfaults. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO
SATISFACTORY QUALITY, PERFORMANCE, ACCURACY, AND
EFFORT (INCLUDING LACK OF NEGLIGENCE) IS WITH YOU.
ALSO, THERE IS NO WARRANTY AGAINST INTERFERENCE
WITH YOUR ENJOYMENT OF THE SOFTWARE OR AGAINST
INFRINGEMENT.IF YOU HAVE RECEIVED ANY WARRANTIES
REGARDING THE DEVICE OR THE SOFTWARE, THOSE WARRANTIES DO NOT ORIGINATE FROM, AND ARE NOT BINDING
ON, MS.
• No Liability for Certain Damages. EXCEPT AS PROHIBITED BY
LAW,MS SHALLHAVE NO LIABILITY FOR ANY INDIRECT,
SPECIAL, CONSEQUENTIAL OR INCIDENTALDAMAGES
ARISING FROM OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USEOR PERFORMANCE OF THE SOFTWARE. THIS LIMITATION SHALL
APPLYEVEN IF ANY REMEDY FAILS OF ITS ESSENTIAL PURPOSE. IN NO EVENT SHALL MS BE LIABLEFOR ANY
AMOUNT IN EXCESS OF U.S. TWO HUNDRED FIFTY DOLLARS (U.S.$250.00).
• Limitations on Reverse Engineering, Decompilation,and Dis-
assembly. You may not reverse engineer, decompile, or disas-
semble the SOFTWARE, except and onlyto the extent that such
activity is expressly permitted byapplicable law notwithstanding
this limitation.
• SOFTWARE TRANSFER ALLOWED BUT WITH RESTRIC-
TIONS. You may permanently transfer rights under this EULA only
as part of a permanent sale or transfer of the Device, and only if
the recipient agrees to this EULA. If the SOFTWARE is an upgrade, any transfer must alsoinclude allprior versionsof the
SOFTWARE.
• EXPORT RESTRICTIONS. You acknowledge that SOFTWARE is
subject to U.S. export jurisdiction. You agree to comply with allapplicable international and national laws that apply tothe SOFTWARE, including the U.S. Export AdministrationRegulations, as
well as end-user, end-use and destination restrictions issued by U.
S. and other governments. For additional information see http://
www.microsoft.com/exporting/.
1.9 EULA Terms
Qt4 Core and Qt4 GUI, Copyright ©2013 NokiaCorporation and FLIR Systems AB. This Qt library is a free software; you can redistributeit and/ormodify it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General PublicLicense as published
by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or (atyour
option) any later version. This library is distributed in the hope that it willbe
useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITYor FITNESS FOR APARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
GNU Lesser General Public License, http://www.gnu.org/licenses/lgpl-2.1.
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Disclaimers1
html. The source code for the libraries Qt4 Core and Qt4GUI may be requested from FLIR Systems AB.
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Safety information
2
WARNING
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not disassemble or do a modification to the battery. The battery contains safety and protection devices which, if damage occurs, can cause the battery to become hot, or cause an explosion or an ignition.
WARNING
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
If there is a leak from the battery and you get the fluid in your eyes, do not rub your eyes. Flush well with
water and immediately get medical care. The battery fluid can cause injury to your eyes if you do not do
this.
WARNING
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not continue to charge the battery if it does not become charged in the specified charging time. If
you continue to charge the battery, it can become hot and cause an explosion or ignition. Injury to persons can occur.
WARNING
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Only use the correct equipment to remove the electrical power from the battery. If you do not use the
correct equipment, you can decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery. If you do not use
the correct equipment, an incorrect flow of current to the battery can occur. This can cause the battery
to become hot, or cause an explosion. Injury to persons can occur.
WARNING
Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on containers before you use a liquid. The liquids can be dangerous. Injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Do not point the infrared camera (with or without the lens cover) at strong energy sources, for example,
devices that cause laser radiation, or the sun. This can have an unwanted effect on the accuracy of the
camera. It can also cause damage to the detector in the camera.
CAUTION
Do not use the camera in temperatures more than +50°C (+122°F), unless other information is specified
in the user documentation or technical data. High temperatures can cause damage to the camera.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not attach the batteries directly to a car’s cigarette lighter socket, unless FLIR Systems supplies a
specific adapter to connect the batteries to a cigarette lighter socket. Damage to the batteries can
occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not connect the positive terminal and the negative terminal of the battery to each other with a metal
object (such as wire). Damage to the batteries can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not get water or salt water on the battery, or permit the battery to become wet. Damage to the batteries can occur.
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Safety information
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CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not make holes in the battery with objects. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not hit the battery with a hammer. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not put your foot on the battery, hit it or cause shocks to it. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not put the batteries in or near a fire, or into direct sunlight. When the battery becomes hot, the builtin safety equipment becomes energized and can stop the battery charging procedure. If the battery becomes hot, damage can occur to the safety equipment and this can cause more heat, damage or ignition of the battery.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not put the battery on a fire or increase the temperature of the battery with heat. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not put the battery on or near fires, stoves, or other high-temperature locations. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not solder directly onto the battery. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Do not use the battery if, when you use, charge, or put the battery in storage, there is an unusual smell
from the battery, the battery feels hot, changes color, changes shape, or is in an unusual condition.
Speak with your sales office if one or more of these problems occurs. Damage to the battery and injury
to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Only use a specified battery charger when you charge the battery. Damage to the battery can occur if
you do not do this.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
The temperature range through which you can charge the battery is ±0°C to +45°C (+32°F to +113°F),
unless other information is specified in the user documentation or technical data. If you charge the battery at temperatures out of this range, it can cause the battery to become hot or to break. It can also decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery.
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Safety information
2
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
The temperature range through which you can remove the electrical power from the battery is -15°C to
+50°C (+5°F to +122°F), unless other information is specified in the user documentation or technical
data. If you operate the battery out of this temperature range, it can decrease the performance or the life
cycle of the battery.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
When the battery is worn, apply insulation to the terminals with adhesive tape or equivalent materials
before you discard it. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur if you do not do this.
CAUTION
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.
Remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install it. Damage to the battery can occur if
you do not do this.
CAUTION
Do not apply solvents or equivalent liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Be careful when you clean the infrared lens. The lens has an anti-reflective coating which is easily damaged. Damage to the infrared lens can occur.
CAUTION
Do not use too much force to clean the infrared lens. This can cause damage to the anti-reflective
coating.
NOTE
The encapsulation rating is only applicable when all the openings on the camera are sealed with their
correct covers, hatches, or caps. This includes the compartments for data storage, batteries, and
connectors.
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Notice to user
3
3.1 User-to-user forums
Exchange ideas, problems, and infrared solutions with fellow thermographers around the
world in our user-to-user forums. To go to the forums, visit:
http://www.infraredtraining.com/community/boards/
3.2 Calibration
We recommend that you send in the camera for calibration once a year. Contact your local sales office for instructions on where to send the camera.
3.3 Accuracy
For very accurate results, we recommend that you wait 5 minutes after you have started
the camera before measuring a temperature.
3.4 Disposal of electronic waste
As with most electronic products, this equipment must be disposed of in an environmentally friendly way, and in accordance with existing regulations for electronic waste.
Please contact your FLIR Systems representative for more details.
3.5 Training
To read about infrared training, visit:
• http://www.infraredtraining.com
• http://www.irtraining.com
• http://www.irtraining.eu
3.6 Documentation updates
Our manuals are updated several times per year, and we also issue product-critical notifications of changes on a regular basis.
To access the latest manuals and notifications, go to the Download tab at:
http://support.flir.com
It only takes a few minutes to register online. In the download area you will also find the
latest releases of manuals for our other products, as well as manuals for our historical
and obsolete products.
3.7 Important note about this manual
FLIR Systems issues generic manuals that cover several cameras within a model line.
This means that this manual may contain descriptions and explanations that do not apply
to your particular camera model.
3.8 Note about authoritative versions
The authoritative version of this publication is English. In the event of divergences due to
translation errors, the English text has precedence.
Any late changes are first implemented in English.
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Customer help
4
4.1 General
For customer help, visit:
http://support.flir.com
4.2 Submitting a question
To submit a question to the customer help team, you must be a registered user. It only
takes a few minutes to register online. If you only want to search the knowledgebase for
existing questions and answers, you do not need to be a registered user.
When you want to submit a question, make sure that you have the following information
to hand:
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Customer help
4
• The camera model
• The camera serial number
• The communication protocol, or method, between the camera and your device (for example, HDMI, Ethernet, USB, or FireWire)
• Device type (PC/Mac/iPhone/iPad/Android device, etc.)
• Version of any programs from FLIR Systems
• Full name, publication number, and revision number of the manual
4.3 Downloads
On the customer help site you can also download the following:
• Firmware updates for your infrared camera.
• Program updates for your PC/Mac software.
• Freeware and evaluation versions of PC/Mac software.
• User documentation for current, obsolete, and historical products.
• Mechanical drawings (in *.dxf and *.pdf format).
• Cad data models (in *.stp format).
• Application stories.
• Technical datasheets.
• Product catalogs.
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Quick Start Guide
5
5.1 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Charge the battery for approximately 1.5 hours, using the FLIR power supply.
2. Push the On/off button
to turn on the camera.
3. Aim the camera toward your target of interest.
4. Push the Save button to save an image.
(Optional steps)
5. Install FLIR Tools on your computer.
6. Start FLIR Tools.
7. Connect the camera to your computer, using the USB cable.
8. Import the images into FLIR Tools.
9. Create a PDF report in FLIR Tools.
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Description
6
6.1 View from the front
1. Camera lamp.
2. Digital camera lens.
3. Infrared lens.
4. Attachment point.
6.2 View from the rear
1. On/off button.
2. Save button.
3. Camera screen.
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Description6
6.3 Connector
The purpose of this USB Micro-B connector is the following:
• Charging the battery using the FLIR power supply.
• Moving images from the camera to a computer for further analysis in FLIR Tools.
NOTE
Install FLIR Tools on your computer before you move the images.
6.4 Screen elements
1. Main menu toolbar.
2. Submenu toolbar.
3. Result table.
4. Status icons.
5. Temperature scale.
6. Spotmeter.
6.5 Auto-orientation
The camera has an auto-orientation feature, which means that the camera automatically
adjusts the measurement information on the display to the vertical or horizontal position
of the camera.
NOTE
The auto-orientation feature is enabled by a setting. Select Settings > Device settings > Auto orientation
> On.
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Description6
6.6 Navigating the menu system
The camera has a touch screen. You can use your index finger or a stylus pen specially
designed for capacitive touch usage to navigate the menu system.
Tap the camera screen to bring up the menu system.
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Operation
7
7.1 Charging the battery
Follow this procedure:
1. Connect the FLIR power supply to a wall outlet.
2. Connect the power supply cable to the USB connector on the camera.
7.2 Turning on and turning off the camera
• Push the On/off button
to turn on the camera.
• Push and hold the On/off button
until the screen goes off (for less than 5 seconds) to put the camera in standby mode. The camera then automatically turns off
after 2 hours.
• Push and hold the On/off button
for more than 5 seconds to turn off the
camera.
7.3 Saving an image
7.3.1 General
You can save images to the internal camera memory.
The camera saves both a thermal image and a visual image at the same time.
7.3.2 Image capacity
Approximately 500 images can be saved to the internal camera memory.
7.3.3 Naming convention
The naming convention for images is FLIRxxxx.jpg, where xxxx is a unique counter.
7.3.4 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. To save an image, push the Save button.
7.4 Recalling an image
7.4.1 General
When you save an image, it is stored in the internal camera memory. To display the image again, you can recall it from the internal camera memory.
7.4.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Images
. This displays an image in the image archive.
3. To view the previous or next image, do one of the following:
• Swipe left or right.
• Tap the left arrow
or the right arrow .
4. To switch between a thermal image and a visual image, swipe up or down.
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Operation
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5. Tap the camera screen. This displays a toolbar.
• Select Full screen
or Exit full screen to switch between the full screen and
normal views.
• Select Thumbnails
to display the thumbnail overview. To scroll between the
thumbnails, swipe up/down. To display an image, tap its thumbnail.
• Select Delete
to delete the image.
• Select Information
to display information about the image.
• Select Camera
to return to live mode.
7.5 Deleting an image
7.5.1 General
You can delete an image from the internal camera memory.
7.5.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Images
. This displays an image in the image archive.
3. To display the previous or next image, do one of the following:
• Swipe left or right.
• Tap the left arrow
or the right arrow .
4. When the image you want to delete is displayed, tap the camera screen. This displays a toolbar.
5. On the toolbar, select Delete
. This displays a dialog box.
6. In the dialog box, select Delete.
7. To return to live mode, tap the camera screen and select Camera
.
7.6 Deleting all images
7.6.1 General
You can delete all images from the internal camera memory.
7.6.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Settings
. This displays a dialog box.
3. In the dialog box, select Device settings. This displays a dialog box.
4. In the dialog box, select Reset options. This displays a dialog box.
5. In the dialog box, select Delete all saved images. This displays a dialog box.
6. In the dialog box, select Delete.
7. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow
repeatedly. You can also push the
Save button once.
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Operation
7
7.7 Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter
7.7.1 General
You can measure a temperature using a spotmeter. This will display the temperature at
the position of the spotmeter on the screen.
7.7.1.1 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Measurement
. This displays a submenu toolbar.
3. On the submenu toolbar, select Center spot
.
The temperature at the position of the spotmeter will now be displayed in the top left
corner of the screen.
7.8 Hiding measurement tools
7.8.1 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Measurement
. This displays a submenu toolbar.
3. On the submenu toolbar, select No measurements
.
7.9 Changing the color palette
7.9.1 General
You can change the color palette that the camera uses to display different temperatures.
A different palette can make it easier to analyze an image.
7.9.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Color
. This displays a submenu toolbar.
3. On the submenu toolbar, select the type of color palette:
• Iron.
• Rainbow.
• Rainbow HC.
• Gray.
7.10 Changing the image mode
7.10.1 General
The camera captures both thermal and visual images at the same time. By your choice
of image mode, you select which type of image to display on the screen.
The camera supports the following image modes:
• Thermal MSX (Multi Spectral Dynamic Imaging): The camera displays an infrared im-
age where the edges of the objects are enhanced with visual image details.
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• Thermal: The camera displays a fully infrared image.
• Digital camera: The camera displays only the visual image captured by the digital
camera.
To display a good fusion image (Thermal MSX mode), the camera must make adjustments to compensate for the small difference in position between the digital camera lens
and the infrared lens. To adjust the image accurately, the camera requires the alignment
distance (i.e., the distance to the object).
7.10.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Image mode
. This displays a submenu toolbar.
3. On the submenu toolbar, select one of the following:
• Thermal MSX
.
• Thermal
.
• Digital camera
.
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Operation
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4. If you have selected the Thermal MSX mode, also set the distance to the object by
doing the following:
• On the submenu toolbar, select Alignment distance
. This displays a dialog
box.
• In the dialog box, select the distance to the object.
7.11 Changing the temperature scale mode
7.11.1 General
The camera can operate in two different temperature scale modes:
• Auto mode: In this mode, the camera is continuously auto-adjusted for the best image
brightness and contrast.
• Lock mode: In this mode, the camera locks the temperature span and the temperature
level.
7.11.2 When to use Lock mode
A typical situation where you would use Lock mode is when looking for temperature
anomalies in two items with a similar design or construction.
For example, you have two cables, and you suspect that one is overheated. With the
camera in Auto mode, direct the camera toward the cable that has a normal temperature,
and then activate Lock mode. When you then direct the camera, in Lock mode, toward
the suspected overheated cable, that cable will appear in a lighter color in the thermal image if its temperature is higher than the first cable.
If you instead use Auto mode, the color for the two items might appear the same despite
their temperature being different.
7.11.3 Procedure
To go between Auto mode and Lock mode, tap the top or bottom temperature value in
the temperature scale.
A gray padlock icon indicates that Lock mode is active.
7.12 Setting the emissivity
7.12.1 General
To measure temperatures accurately, the camera must be aware of the type of surface
you are measuring. You can choose between the following surface properties:
• Matt.
• Semi-matt.
• Semi-glossy.
As an alternative, you can set a custom emissivity value.
For more information about emissivity, see section 15 Thermographic measurement
techniques, page 38.
7.12.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Settings
. This displays a dialog box.
3. In the dialog box, select Measurement parameters. This displays a dialog box.
4. In the dialog box, select Emissivity. This displays a dialog box.
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Operation
7
5. In the dialog box, select one of the following:
• Matt.
• Semi-matt.
• Semi-glossy.
• Custom value. This displays a dialog box where you can set a value.
6. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow
repeatedly. You can also push the
Save button once.
7.13 Changing the reflected apparent temperature
7.13.1 General
This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected by the object. If the
emissivity is low and the object temperature significantly different from that of the reflected temperature, it will be important to set and compensate for the reflected apparent
temperature correctly.
For more information about the reflected apparent temperature, see section 15 Thermo-
graphic measurement techniques, page 38.
7.13.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Settings
. This displays a dialog box.
3. In the dialog box, select Measurement parameters. This displays a dialog box.
4. In the dialog box, select Reflected temperature. This displays a dialog box where you
can set a value.
5. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow
repeatedly. You can also push the
Save button once.
7.14 Changing the distance
7.14.1 General
The distance is the distance between the object and the front lens of the camera. This
parameter is used to compensate for the following two facts:
• That radiation from the target is absorbed by the atmosphere between the object and
the camera.
• That radiation from the atmosphere itself is detected by the camera.
For more information, see section 15 Thermographic measurement techniques, page 38.
7.14.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Settings
. This displays a dialog box.
3. In the dialog box, select Measurement parameters. This displays a dialog box.
4. In the dialog box, select Distance. This displays a dialog box where you can set a
value.
5. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow
repeatedly. You can also push the
Save button once.
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7.15 Performing a non-uniformity correction
7.15.1 What is a non-uniformity correction?
A non-uniformity correction (or NUC) is an image correction carried out by the camera
software to compensate for different sensitivities of detector elements and other optical
and geometrical disturbances
1
.
7.15.2 When to perform a non-uniformity correction
The non-uniformity correction process should be carried out whenever the output image
becomes spatially noisy. The output can become spatially noisy when the ambient temperature changes (such as from indoors to outdoors operation, and vice versa).
7.15.3 Procedure
To perform a non-uniformity correction, tap and hold the
icon. The text Calibrating...
appears on the screen.
7.16 Using the camera lamp
7.16.1 General
You can use the camera lamp as a flashlight, or as a flash when taking an image.
7.16.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Lamp
.
3. Tap one of the following:
• Flash (to use the lamp as a flash when taking an image).
• On (to turn on the lamp and use it as a flashlight).
• Off (to turn off the lamp).
7.17 Changing the settings
7.17.1 General
You can change a variety of settings for the camera.
The Settings menu includes the following:
• Measurement parameters.
• Save options.
• Device settings.
7.17.1.1 Measurement parameters
• Emissivity.
• Reflected temperature.
• Distance.
7.17.1.2 Save options
• Photo as separate JPEG: When this menu command is selected, the digital photo-
graph from the visual camera is saved at its full field of view as a separate JPEG image. It may be necessary to activate this option if you are not using the FLIR Tools
software.
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1. Definition from the imminent international adoption of DIN 54190-3 (Non-destructive testing – Thermographic
testing – Part 3: Terms and definitions).
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Operation
7
7.17.1.3 Device settings
• Language, time & units:
• Language.
• Temperature unit.
• Distance unit.
• Date & time.
• Date & time format.
• Reset options:
• Reset default camera mode.
• Reset device settings to factory default.
• Delete all saved images.
• Auto power off.
• Auto orientation.
• Display intensity.
• Camera information: This menu command displays various items of information about
the camera, such as the model, serial number, and software version.
7.17.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Settings
. This displays a dialog box.
3. In the dialog box, tap the setting that you want to change.
4. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow repeatedly. You can also push the
Save button once.
7.18 Updating the camera
7.18.1 General
To take advantage of our latest camera firmware, it is important that you keep your camera updated. You update your camera using FLIR Tools.
7.18.2 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Start FLIR Tools.
2. Start the camera.
3. Connect the camera to the computer using the USB cable.
4. FLIR Tools displays a welcome screen when the camera is identified. On the welcome screen, click Check for updates.
You can also click Check for updates on the Help menu in FLIR Tools.
5. Follow the on-screen instructions.
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Technical data
8
8.1 Online field-of-view calculator
Please visit http://support.flir.com and click the photo of the camera series for field-ofview tables for all lens–camera combinations.
8.2 Note about technical data
FLIR Systems reserves the right to change specifications at any time without prior notice.
Please check http://support.flir.com for latest changes.
8.3 Note about authoritative versions
The authoritative version of this publication is English. In the event of divergences due to
translation errors, the English text has precedence.
Any late changes are first implemented in English.
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Technical data8
8.4 FLIR C2
P/N: 72001-0101
Rev.: 22841
Imaging and optical data
NETD 100 mK
Field of view
41° × 31°
Minimum focus distance
• Thermal: 0.15 m (0.49 ft.)
• MSX: 1.0 m (3.3 ft.)
Focal length 1.54 mm (0.061 in.)
Spatial resolution (IFOV) 11 mrad
F-number 1.1
Image frequency 9 Hz
Focus Focus free
Detector data
Focal Plane Array Uncooled microbolometer
Spectral range
7.5–14 µm
Detector pitch 17 µm
IR sensor size 80 × 60
Image presentation
Display (color)
• 3.0 in.
• 320 × 240 pixels
Display, aspect ratio 4:3
Auto orientation Yes
Touch screen Yes, capacitive
Image adjustment (alignment calibration) Yes
Image presentation modes
Infrared image Yes
Visual image Yes
MSX
Yes
Gallery Yes
Measurement
Object temperature range –10°C to +150°C (14 to 302°F)
Accuracy ±2°C (±3.6°F) or 2%, whichever is greater, at 25°
C (77°F) nominal.
Measurement analysis
Spotmeter On/off
Emissivity correction
Yes; matt/semi-matt/semi-glossy + custom value
Measurements correction
• Emissivity
• Reflected apparent temperature
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Technical data8
Set-up
Color palettes
• Iron
• Rainbow
• Rainbow HC
• Gray
Set-up commands Local adaptation of units, language, date and time
formats
Languages
Arabic, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish,
French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese,
Russian, Simpl. Chinese, Spanish, Swedish, Trad.
Chinese, Turkish.
Lamp
Output power 0.85 W
Field of view
60°
Service functions
Camera software update Using FLIR Tools
Storage of images
Storage media Internal memory store at least 500 sets of images
Image file format
• Standard JPEG
• 14-bit measurement data included
Video streaming
Non-radiometric IR video streaming Yes
Visual video streaming Yes
Digital camera
Digital camera 640 × 480 pixels
Digital camera, focus Fixed focus
Data communication interfaces
USB, connector type USB Micro-B: Data transfer to and from PC
USB, standard USB 2.0
Power system
Battery type Rechargeable Li-ion polymer battery
Battery voltage 3.7 V
Battery operating time 2 h
Charging system Charged inside the camera
Charging time
1.5 h
External power operation
• AC adapter, 90–260 VAC input
• 5 V output to camera
Power management Automatic shut-down
Environmental data
Operating temperature range –10°C to +50°C (14 to 122°F)
Storage temperature range –40°C to +70°C (–40 to 158°F)
Humidity (operating and storage) IEC 60068-2-30/24 h 95% relative humidity +25°C
to +40°C (+77°F to +104°F) / 2 cycles
Relative humidity 95% relative humidity +25°C to +40°C (+77°F to
+104°F) non condensing
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Technical data8
Environmental data
EMC
• WEEE 2012/19/EC
• RoHs 2011/65/EC
• C-Tick
• EN 61000-6-3
• EN 61000-6-2
• FCC 47 CFR Part 15 Class B
Magnetic fields EN 61000-4-8
Battery regulations UL 1642
Encapsulation Camera housing and lens: IP 40 (IEC 60529)
Shock 25 g (IEC 60068-2-27)
Vibration
2 g (IEC 60068-2-6)
Physical data
Weight (incl. Battery) 0.13 kg (0.29 lb.)
Size (L × W × H) 125 × 80 × 24 mm (4.9 × 3.1 × 0.94 in.)
Tripod mounting No
Housing material
• PC and ABS, partially covered with TPE
• Aluminum
Color Black and gray
Shipping information
Packaging, type
Cardboard box
List of contents
• Infrared camera
• Lanyard
• Power supply/charger with EU, UK, US, CN
and Australian plugs
• Printed getting started guide
• USB memory stick with documentation
• USB cable
Packaging, weight 0.53 kg (1.17 lb.)
Packaging, size 175 × 115 × 75 mm (6.9 × 4.5 × 3.0 in.)
EAN-13 4743254001961
UPC-12
845188010614
Country of origin
Estonia
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4,9
124,5
mm
3,1
78,7
mm
1,02
25,9
mm
Optical axis
1,78
45,3
mm
0,43
11
mm
1,31
33,4
mm
0,91
23,1
mm
0,58
14,8
mm
Camera with build-in IR lens f=1,54mm
Visual Optical axis
IR Optical axis
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 632 54
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
F
C
E
G
D
A
B
-
Scale
1:1
B
Size
Modified
R&D Thermography
MABR
Basic Dimensions Flir Cx
T128439
1(1)
A2
Denomination
Drawn by
Check
Size
Drawing No.
Sheet
7
© 2012, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide. No part of this drawing may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without written permission from FLIR Systems, Inc. Specifications subject to change without further notice. Dimensional data is based on nominal values. Products may be subject to regional market considerations. License procedures may apply.
Product may be subject to US Export Regulations. Please refer to exportquestions@flir.com with any questions. Diversion contrary to US law is prohibited.
2014-12-18
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Cleaning the camera
11
11.1 Camera housing, cables, and other items
11.1.1 Liquids
Use one of these liquids:
• Warm water
• A weak detergent solution
11.1.2 Equipment
A soft cloth
11.1.3 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Soak the cloth in the liquid.
2. Twist the cloth to remove excess liquid.
3. Clean the part with the cloth.
CAUTION
Do not apply solvents or similar liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. This can cause
damage.
11.2 Infrared lens
11.2.1 Liquids
Use one of these liquids:
• A commercial lens cleaning liquid with more than 30% isopropyl alcohol.
• 96% ethyl alcohol (C
2H5
OH).
11.2.2 Equipment
Cotton wool
11.2.3 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Soak the cotton wool in the liquid.
2. Twist the cotton wool to remove excess liquid.
3. Clean the lens one time only and discard the cotton wool.
WARNING
Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on containers before you use a liquid: the liquids can be dangerous.
CAUTION
• Be careful when you clean the infrared lens. The lens has a delicate anti-reflective coating.
• Do not clean the infrared lens too vigorously. This can damage the anti-reflective coating.
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Application examples
12
12.1 Moisture & water damage
12.1.1 General
It is often possible to detect moisture and water damage in a house by using an infrared
camera. This is partly because the damaged area has a different heat conduction property and partly because it has a different thermal capacity to store heat than the surrounding material.
NOTE
Many factors can come into play as to how moisture or water damage will appear in an infrared image.
For example, heating and cooling of these parts takes place at different rates depending on the material
and the time of day. For this reason, it is important that other methods are used as well to check for
moisture or water damage.
12.1.2 Figure
The image below shows extensive water damage on an external wall where the water
has penetrated the outer facing because of an incorrectly installed window ledge.
12.2 Faulty contact in socket
12.2.1 General
Depending on the type of connection a socket has, an improperly connected wire can result in local temperature increase. This temperature increase is caused by the reduced
contact area between the connection point of the incoming wire and the socket , and can
result in an electrical fire.
NOTE
A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another. For this reason, different faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared image.
Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between wire and socket, or from difference in load.
12.2.2 Figure
The image below shows a connection of a cable to a socket where improper contact in
the connection has resulted in local temperature increase.
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Application examples12
12.3 Oxidized socket
12.3.1 General
Depending on the type of socket and the environment in which the socket is installed, oxides may occur on the socket's contact surfaces. These oxides can lead to locally increased resistance when the socket is loaded, which can be seen in an infrared image
as local temperature increase.
NOTE
A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another. For this reason, different faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared image.
Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between a wire and socket, or from
difference in load.
12.3.2 Figure
The image below shows a series of fuses where one fuse has a raised temperature on
the contact surfaces against the fuse holder. Because of the fuse holder’s blank metal,
the temperature increase is not visible there, while it is visible on the fuse’s ceramic
material.
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Application examples12
12.4 Insulation deficiencies
12.4.1 General
Insulation deficiencies may result from insulation losing volume over the course of time
and thereby not entirely filling the cavity in a frame wall.
An infrared camera allows you to see these insulation deficiencies because they either
have a different heat conduction property than sections with correctly installed insulation,
and/or show the area where air is penetrating the frame of the building.
NOTE
When you are inspecting a building, the temperature difference between the inside and outside should
be at least 10°C (18°F). Studs, water pipes, concrete columns, and similar components may resemble
an insulation deficiency in an infrared image. Minor differences may also occur naturally.
12.4.2 Figure
In the image below, insulation in the roof framing is lacking. Due to the absence of insulation, air has forced its way into the roof structure, which thus takes on a different characteristic appearance in the infrared image.
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Application examples12
12.5 Draft
12.5.1 General
Draft can be found under baseboards, around door and window casings, and above ceiling trim. This type of draft is often possible to see with an infrared camera, as a cooler
airstream cools down the surrounding surface.
NOTE
When you are investigating draft in a house, there should be sub-atmospheric pressure in the house.
Close all doors, windows, and ventilation ducts, and allow the kitchen fan to run for a while before you
take the infrared images.
An infrared image of draft often shows a typical stream pattern. You can see this stream pattern clearly
in the picture below.
Also keep in mind that drafts can be concealed by heat from floor heating circuits.
12.5.2 Figure
The image below shows a ceiling hatch where faulty installation has resulted in a strong
draft.
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About FLIR Systems
13
FLIR Systems was established in 1978 to pioneer the development of high-performance
infrared imaging systems, and is the world leader in the design, manufacture, and marketing of thermal imaging systems for a wide variety of commercial, industrial, and government applications. Today, FLIR Systems embraces five major companies with
outstanding achievements in infrared technology since 1958—the Swedish AGEMA Infrared Systems (formerly AGA Infrared Systems), the three United States companies Indigo Systems, FSI, and Inframetrics, and the French company Cedip.
Since 2007, FLIR Systems has acquired several companies with world-leading expertise
in sensor technologies:
• Extech Instruments (2007)
• Ifara Tecnologías (2008)
• Salvador Imaging (2009)
• OmniTech Partners (2009)
• Directed Perception (2009)
• Raymarine (2010)
• ICx Technologies (2010)
• TackTick Marine Digital Instruments (2011)
• Aerius Photonics (2011)
• Lorex Technology (2012)
• Traficon (2012)
• MARSS (2013)
• DigitalOptics micro-optics business (2013)
Figure 13.1 Patent documents from the early 1960s
The company has sold more than 350,000 infrared cameras worldwide for applications
such as predictive maintenance, R & D, non-destructive testing, process control and automation, and machine vision, among many others.
FLIR Systems has three manufacturing plants in the United States (Portland, OR, Boston, MA, Santa Barbara, CA) and one in Sweden (Stockholm). Since 2007 there is also a
manufacturing plant in Tallinn, Estonia. Direct sales offices in Belgium, Brazil, China,
France, Germany, Great Britain, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Korea, Sweden, and the USA
—together with a worldwide network of agents and distributors—support our international customer base.
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About FLIR Systems
13
FLIR Systems is at the forefront of innovation in the infrared camera industry. We anticipate market demand by constantly improving our existing cameras and developing new
ones. The company has set milestones in product design and development such as the
introduction of the first battery-operated portable camera for industrial inspections, and
the first uncooled infrared camera, to mention just two innovations.
Figure 13.2 LEFT: Thermovision Model 661 from 1969. The camera weighed approximately 25 kg
(55 lb.), the oscilloscope 20 kg (44 lb.), and the tripod 15 kg (33 lb.). The operator also needed a 220 VAC
generator set, and a 10 L (2.6 US gallon) jar with liquid nitrogen. To the left of the oscilloscope the Polaroid
attachment (6 kg/13 lb.) can be seen. RIGHT: FLIR One, which was launched in January 2014, is a slideon attachment that gives iPhones thermal imaging capabilities. Weight: 90 g (3.2 oz.).
FLIR Systems manufactures all vital mechanical and electronic components of the camera systems itself. From detector design and manufacturing, to lenses and system electronics, to final testing and calibration, all production steps are carried out and
supervised by our own engineers. The in-depth expertise of these infrared specialists ensures the accuracy and reliability of all vital components that are assembled into your infrared camera.
13.1 More than just an infrared camera
At FLIR Systems we recognize that our job is to go beyond just producing the best infrared camera systems. We are committed to enabling all users of our infrared camera systems to work more productively by providing them with the most powerful camera–
software combination. Especially tailored software for predictive maintenance, R & D,
and process monitoring is developed in-house. Most software is available in a wide variety of languages.
We support all our infrared cameras with a wide variety of accessories to adapt your
equipment to the most demanding infrared applications.
13.2 Sharing our knowledge
Although our cameras are designed to be very user-friendly, there is a lot more to thermography than just knowing how to handle a camera. Therefore, FLIR Systems has
founded the Infrared Training Center (ITC), a separate business unit, that provides certified training courses. Attending one of the ITC courses will give you a truly hands-on
learning experience.
The staff of the ITC are also there to provide you with any application support you may
need in putting infrared theory into practice.
13.3 Supporting our customers
FLIR Systems operates a worldwide service network to keep your camera running at all
times. If you discover a problem with your camera, local service centers have all the
equipment and expertise to solve it within the shortest possible time. Therefore, there is
no need to send your camera to the other side of the world or to talk to someone who
does not speak your language.
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About FLIR Systems
13
13.4 A few images from our facilities
Figure 13.3 LEFT: Development of system electronics; RIGHT: Testing of an FPA detector
Figure 13.4 LEFT: Diamond turning machine; RIGHT: Lens polishing
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Glossary
14
absorption
(absorption
factor)
The amount of radiation absorbed by an object relative to the received radiation. A number between 0 and 1.
atmosphere The gases between the object being measured and the camera, nor-
mally air.
autoadjust A function making a camera perform an internal image correction.
autopalette The IR image is shown with an uneven spread of colors, displaying
cold objects as well as hot ones at the same time.
blackbody Totally non-reflective object. All its radiation is due to its own
temperature.
blackbody
radiator
An IR radiating equipment with blackbody properties used to cali-
brate IR cameras.
calculated at-
mospheric
transmission
A transmission value computed from the temperature, the relative
humidity of air and the distance to the object.
cavity radiator A bottle shaped radiator with an absorbing inside, viewed through
the bottleneck.
color
temperature
The temperature for which the color of a blackbody matches a spe-
cific color.
conduction The process that makes heat diffuse into a material.
continuous
adjust
A function that adjusts the image. The function works all the time,
continuously adjusting brightness and contrast according to the im-
age content.
convection
Convection is a heat transfer mode where a fluid is brought into mo-
tion, either by gravity or another force, thereby transferring heat from
one place to another.
dual isotherm An isotherm with two color bands, instead of one.
emissivity
(emissivity
factor)
The amount of radiation coming from an object, compared to that of
a blackbody. A number between 0 and 1.
emittance Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time and area
(W/m
2
)
environment
Objects and gases that emit radiation towards the object being
measured.
estimated at-
mospheric
transmission
A transmission value, supplied by a user, replacing a calculated one
external optics Extra lenses, filters, heat shields etc. that can be put between the
camera and the object being measured.
filter A material transparent only to some of the infrared wavelengths.
FOV Field of view: The horizontal angle that can be viewed through an IR
lens.
FPA Focal plane array: A type of IR detector.
graybody An object that emits a fixed fraction of the amount of energy of a
blackbody for each wavelength.
IFOV Instantaneous field of view: A measure of the geometrical resolution
of an IR camera.
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Glossary
14
image correction (internal or
external)
A way of compensating for sensitivity differences in various parts of
live images and also of stabilizing the camera.
infrared Non-visible radiation, having a wavelength from about 2–13 μm.
IR infrared
isotherm A function highlighting those parts of an image that fall above, below
or between one or more temperature intervals.
isothermal
cavity
A bottle-shaped radiator with a uniform temperature viewed through
the bottleneck.
Laser LocatIR An electrically powered light source on the camera that emits laser
radiation in a thin, concentrated beam to point at certain parts of the
object in front of the camera.
laser pointer An electrically powered light source on the camera that emits laser
radiation in a thin, concentrated beam to point at certain parts of the
object in front of the camera.
level The center value of the temperature scale, usually expressed as a
signal value.
manual adjust A way to adjust the image by manually changing certain parameters.
NETD Noise equivalent temperature difference. A measure of the image
noise level of an IR camera.
noise Undesired small disturbance in the infrared image
object
parameters
A set of values describing the circumstances under which the meas-
urement of an object was made, and the object itself (such as emis-
sivity, reflected apparent temperature, distance etc.)
object signal A non-calibrated value related to the amount of radiation received by
the camera from the object.
palette The set of colors used to display an IR image.
pixel
Stands for picture element. One single spot in an image.
radiance Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and
angle (W/m
2
/sr)
radiant power
Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time (W)
radiation The process by which electromagnetic energy, is emitted by an ob-
ject or a gas.
radiator A piece of IR radiating equipment.
range
The current overall temperature measurement limitation of an IR
camera. Cameras can have several ranges. Expressed as two
blackbody temperatures that limit the current calibration.
reference
temperature
A temperature which the ordinary measured values can be com-
pared with.
reflection The amount of radiation reflected by an object relative to the re-
ceived radiation. A number between 0 and 1.
relative
humidity
Relative humidity represents the ratio between the current water va-
pour mass in the air and the maximum it may contain in saturation
conditions.
saturation
color
The areas that contain temperatures outside the present level/span
settings are colored with the saturation colors. The saturation colors
contain an ‘overflow’ color and an ‘underflow’ color. There is also a
third red saturation color that marks everything saturated by the de-
tector indicating that the range should probably be changed.
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span
The interval of the temperature scale, usually expressed as a signal
value.
spectral (radi-
ant) emittance
Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and
wavelength (W/m
2
/μm)
temperature
difference, or
difference of
temperature.
A value which is the result of a subtraction between two temperature
values.
temperature
range
The current overall temperature measurement limitation of an IR
camera. Cameras can have several ranges. Expressed as two
blackbody temperatures that limit the current calibration.
temperature
scale
The way in which an IR image currently is displayed. Expressed as
two temperature values limiting the colors.
thermogram infrared image
transmission
(or transmittance) factor
Gases and materials can be more or less transparent. Transmission
is the amount of IR radiation passing through them. A number be-
tween 0 and 1.
transparent
isotherm
An isotherm showing a linear spread of colors, instead of covering
the highlighted parts of the image.
visual Refers to the video mode of a IR camera, as opposed to the normal,
thermographic mode. When a camera is in video mode it captures
ordinary video images, while thermographic images are captured
when the camera is in IR mode.
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Thermographic measurement
techniques
15
15.1 Introduction
An infrared camera measures and images the emitted infrared radiation from an object.
The fact that radiation is a function of object surface temperature makes it possible for
the camera to calculate and display this temperature.
However, the radiation measured by the camera does not only depend on the temperature of the object but is also a function of the emissivity. Radiation also originates from
the surroundings and is reflected in the object. The radiation from the object and the reflected radiation will also be influenced by the absorption of the atmosphere.
To measure temperature accurately, it is therefore necessary to compensate for the effects of a number of different radiation sources. This is done on-line automatically by the
camera. The following object parameters must, however, be supplied for the camera:
• The emissivity of the object
• The reflected apparent temperature
• The distance between the object and the camera
• The relative humidity
• Temperature of the atmosphere
15.2 Emissivity
The most important object parameter to set correctly is the emissivity which, in short, is a
measure of how much radiation is emitted from the object, compared to that from a perfect blackbody of the same temperature.
Normally, object materials and surface treatments exhibit emissivity ranging from approximately 0.1 to 0.95. A highly polished (mirror) surface falls below 0.1, while an oxidized
or painted surface has a higher emissivity. Oil-based paint, regardless of color in the visible spectrum, has an emissivity over 0.9 in the infrared. Human skin exhibits an emissivity 0.97 to 0.98.
Non-oxidized metals represent an extreme case of perfect opacity and high reflexivity,
which does not vary greatly with wavelength. Consequently, the emissivity of metals is
low – only increasing with temperature. For non-metals, emissivity tends to be high, and
decreases with temperature.
15.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample
15.2.1.1 Step 1: Determining reflected apparent temperature
Use one of the following two methods to determine reflected apparent temperature:
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15.2.1.1.1 Method 1: Direct method
Follow this procedure:
1. Look for possible reflection sources, considering that the incident angle = reflection
angle (a = b).
Figure 15.1 1 = Reflection source
2. If the reflection source is a spot source, modify the source by obstructing it using a
piece if cardboard.
Figure 15.2 1 = Reflection source
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Thermographic measurement techniques15
3. Measure the radiation intensity (= apparent temperature) from the reflecting source
using the following settings:
• Emissivity: 1.0
• D
obj
: 0
You can measure the radiation intensity using one of the following two methods:
Figure 15.3 1 = Reflection source
NOTE
Using a thermocouple to measure reflected apparent temperature is not recommended for two important reasons:
• A thermocouple does not measure radiation intensity
• A thermocouple requires a very good thermal contact to the surface, usually by gluing and covering
the sensor by a thermal isolator.
15.2.1.1.2 Method 2: Reflector method
Follow this procedure:
1. Crumble up a large piece of aluminum foil.
2. Uncrumble the aluminum foil and attach it to a piece of cardboard of the same size.
3. Put the piece of cardboard in front of the object you want to measure. Make sure that
the side with aluminum foil points to the camera.
4. Set the emissivity to 1.0.
5. Measure the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil and write it down.
Figure 15.4 Measuring the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil.
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Thermographic measurement techniques15
15.2.1.2 Step 2: Determining the emissivity
Follow this procedure:
1. Select a place to put the sample.
2. Determine and set reflected apparent temperature according to the previous
procedure.
3. Put a piece of electrical tape with known high emissivity on the sample.
4. Heat the sample at least 20 K above room temperature. Heating must be reasonably
even.
5. Focus and auto-adjust the camera, and freeze the image.
6. Adjust Level and Span for best image brightness and contrast.
7. Set emissivity to that of the tape (usually 0.97).
8. Measure the temperature of the tape using one of the following measurement
functions:
• Isotherm (helps you to determine both the temperature and how evenly you have
heated the sample)
• Spot (simpler)
• Box Avg (good for surfaces with varying emissivity).
9. Write down the temperature.
10. Move your measurement function to the sample surface.
11. Change the emissivity setting until you read the same temperature as your previous
measurement.
12. Write down the emissivity.
NOTE
• Avoid forced convection
• Look for a thermally stable surrounding that will not generate spot reflections
• Use high quality tape that you know is not transparent, and has a high emissivity you are certain of
• This method assumes that the temperature of your tape and the sample surface are the same. If
they are not, your emissivity measurement will be wrong.
15.3 Reflected apparent temperature
This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected in the object. If the
emissivity is low and the object temperature relatively far from that of the reflected it will
be important to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature correctly.
15.4 Distance
The distance is the distance between the object and the front lens of the camera. This
parameter is used to compensate for the following two facts:
• That radiation from the target is absorbed by the atmosphere between the object and
the camera.
• That radiation from the atmosphere itself is detected by the camera.
15.5 Relative humidity
The camera can also compensate for the fact that the transmittance is also dependent
on the relative humidity of the atmosphere. To do this set the relative humidity to the correct value. For short distances and normal humidity the relative humidity can normally be
left at a default value of 50%.
15.6 Other parameters
In addition, some cameras and analysis programs from FLIR Systems allow you to compensate for the following parameters:
• Atmospheric temperature – i.e. the temperature of the atmosphere between the camera and the target
• External optics temperature – i.e. the temperature of any external lenses or windows
used in front of the camera
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Thermographic measurement techniques15
• External optics transmittance – i.e. the transmission of any external lenses or windows
used in front of the camera
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History of infrared technology
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Before the year 1800, the existence of the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum wasn't even suspected. The original significance of the infrared spectrum, or simply
‘the infrared’ as it is often called, as a form of heat radiation is perhaps less obvious today than it was at the time of its discovery by Herschel in 1800.
Figure 16.1 Sir William Herschel (1738–1822)
The discovery was made accidentally during the search for a new optical material. Sir
William Herschel – Royal Astronomer to King George III of England, and already famous
for his discovery of the planet Uranus – was searching for an optical filter material to reduce the brightness of the sun’s image in telescopes during solar observations. While
testing different samples of colored glass which gave similar reductions in brightness he
was intrigued to find that some of the samples passed very little of the sun’s heat, while
others passed so much heat that he risked eye damage after only a few seconds’
observation.
Herschel was soon convinced of the necessity of setting up a systematic experiment,
with the objective of finding a single material that would give the desired reduction in
brightness as well as the maximum reduction in heat. He began the experiment by actually repeating Newton’s prism experiment, but looking for the heating effect rather than
the visual distribution of intensity in the spectrum. He first blackened the bulb of a sensitive mercury-in-glass thermometer with ink, and with this as his radiation detector he proceeded to test the heating effect of the various colors of the spectrum formed on the top
of a table by passing sunlight through a glass prism. Other thermometers, placed outside
the sun’s rays, served as controls.
As the blackened thermometer was moved slowly along the colors of the spectrum, the
temperature readings showed a steady increase from the violet end to the red end. This
was not entirely unexpected, since the Italian researcher, Landriani, in a similar experiment in 1777 had observed much the same effect. It was Herschel, however, who was
the first to recognize that there must be a point where the heating effect reaches a maximum, and that measurements confined to the visible portion of the spectrum failed to locate this point.
Figure 16.2 Marsilio Landriani (1746–1815)
Moving the thermometer into the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum, Herschel confirmed that the heating continued to increase. The maximum point, when he
found it, lay well beyond the red end – in what is known today as the ‘infrared
wavelengths’.
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History of infrared technology
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When Herschel revealed his discovery, he referred to this new portion of the electromagnetic spectrum as the ‘thermometrical spectrum’. The radiation itself he sometimes referred to as ‘dark heat’, or simply ‘the invisible rays’. Ironically, and contrary to popular
opinion, it wasn't Herschel who originated the term ‘infrared’. The word only began to appear in print around 75 years later, and it is still unclear who should receive credit as the
originator.
Herschel’s use of glass in the prism of his original experiment led to some early controversies with his contemporaries about the actual existence of the infrared wavelengths.
Different investigators, in attempting to confirm his work, used various types of glass indiscriminately, having different transparencies in the infrared. Through his later experiments, Herschel was aware of the limited transparency of glass to the newly-discovered
thermal radiation, and he was forced to conclude that optics for the infrared would probably be doomed to the use of reflective elements exclusively (i.e. plane and curved mirrors). Fortunately, this proved to be true only until 1830, when the Italian investigator,
Melloni, made his great discovery that naturally occurring rock salt (NaCl) – which was
available in large enough natural crystals to be made into lenses and prisms – is remarkably transparent to the infrared. The result was that rock salt became the principal infrared optical material, and remained so for the next hundred years, until the art of synthetic
crystal growing was mastered in the 1930’s.
Figure 16.3 Macedonio Melloni (1798–1854)
Thermometers, as radiation detectors, remained unchallenged until 1829, the year Nobili
invented the thermocouple. (Herschel’s own thermometer could be read to 0.2 °C
(0.036 °F), and later models were able to be read to 0.05 °C (0.09 °F)). Then a breakthrough occurred; Melloni connected a number of thermocouples in series to form the
first thermopile. The new device was at least 40 times as sensitive as the best thermometer of the day for detecting heat radiation – capable of detecting the heat from a person
standing three meters away.
The first so-called ‘heat-picture’ became possible in 1840, the result of work by Sir John
Herschel, son of the discoverer of the infrared and a famous astronomer in his own right.
Based upon the differential evaporation of a thin film of oil when exposed to a heat pattern focused upon it, the thermal image could be seen by reflected light where the interference effects of the oil film made the image visible to the eye. Sir John also managed
to obtain a primitive record of the thermal image on paper, which he called a
‘thermograph’.
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History of infrared technology
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Figure 16.4 Samuel P. Langley (1834–1906)
The improvement of infrared-detector sensitivity progressed slowly. Another major breakthrough, made by Langley in 1880, was the invention of the bolometer. This consisted of
a thin blackened strip of platinum connected in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit
upon which the infrared radiation was focused and to which a sensitive galvanometer responded. This instrument is said to have been able to detect the heat from a cow at a
distance of 400 meters.
An English scientist, Sir James Dewar, first introduced the use of liquefied gases as cooling agents (such as liquid nitrogen with a temperature of -196 °C (-320.8 °F)) in low temperature research. In 1892 he invented a unique vacuum insulating container in which it
is possible to store liquefied gases for entire days. The common ‘thermos bottle’, used
for storing hot and cold drinks, is based upon his invention.
Between the years 1900 and 1920, the inventors of the world ‘discovered’ the infrared.
Many patents were issued for devices to detect personnel, artillery, aircraft, ships – and
even icebergs. The first operating systems, in the modern sense, began to be developed
during the 1914–18 war, when both sides had research programs devoted to the military
exploitation of the infrared. These programs included experimental systems for enemy
intrusion/detection, remote temperature sensing, secure communications, and ‘flying torpedo’ guidance. An infrared search system tested during this period was able to detect
an approaching airplane at a distance of 1.5 km (0.94 miles), or a person more than 300
meters (984 ft.) away.
The most sensitive systems up to this time were all based upon variations of the bolometer idea, but the period between the two wars saw the development of two revolutionary
new infrared detectors: the image converter and the photon detector. At first, the image
converter received the greatest attention by the military, because it enabled an observer
for the first time in history to literally ‘see in the dark’. However, the sensitivity of the image converter was limited to the near infrared wavelengths, and the most interesting military targets (i.e. enemy soldiers) had to be illuminated by infrared search beams. Since
this involved the risk of giving away the observer’s position to a similarly-equipped enemy
observer, it is understandable that military interest in the image converter eventually
faded.
The tactical military disadvantages of so-called 'active’ (i.e. search beam-equipped) thermal imaging systems provided impetus following the 1939–45 war for extensive secret
military infrared-research programs into the possibilities of developing ‘passive’ (no
search beam) systems around the extremely sensitive photon detector. During this period, military secrecy regulations completely prevented disclosure of the status of infraredimaging technology. This secrecy only began to be lifted in the middle of the 1950’s, and
from that time adequate thermal-imaging devices finally began to be available to civilian
science and industry.
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Theory of thermography
17
17.1 Introduction
The subjects of infrared radiation and the related technique of thermography are still new
to many who will use an infrared camera. In this section the theory behind thermography
will be given.
17.2 The electromagnetic spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is divided arbitrarily into a number of wavelength regions,
called bands, distinguished by the methods used to produce and detect the radiation.
There is no fundamental difference between radiation in the different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are all governed by the same laws and the only differences
are those due to differences in wavelength.
Figure 17.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. 1: X-ray; 2: UV; 3: Visible; 4: IR; 5: Microwaves; 6:
Radiowaves.
Thermography makes use of the infrared spectral band. At the short-wavelength end the
boundary lies at the limit of visual perception, in the deep red. At the long-wavelength
end it merges with the microwave radio wavelengths, in the millimeter range.
The infrared band is often further subdivided into four smaller bands, the boundaries of
which are also arbitrarily chosen. They include: the near infrared (0.75–3 μm), the middle
infrared (3–6 μm), the far infrared (6–15 μm) and the extreme infrared (15–100 μm).
Although the wavelengths are given in μm (micrometers), other units are often still used
to measure wavelength in this spectral region, e.g. nanometer (nm) and Ångström (Å).
The relationships between the different wavelength measurements is:
17.3 Blackbody radiation
A blackbody is defined as an object which absorbs all radiation that impinges on it at any
wavelength. The apparent misnomer black relating to an object emitting radiation is explained by Kirchhoff’s Law (after Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, 1824–1887), which states that
a body capable of absorbing all radiation at any wavelength is equally capable in the
emission of radiation.
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Figure 17.2 Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887)
The construction of a blackbody source is, in principle, very simple. The radiation characteristics of an aperture in an isotherm cavity made of an opaque absorbing material represents almost exactly the properties of a blackbody. A practical application of the
principle to the construction of a perfect absorber of radiation consists of a box that is
light tight except for an aperture in one of the sides. Any radiation which then enters the
hole is scattered and absorbed by repeated reflections so only an infinitesimal fraction
can possibly escape. The blackness which is obtained at the aperture is nearly equal to
a blackbody and almost perfect for all wavelengths.
By providing such an isothermal cavity with a suitable heater it becomes what is termed
a cavity radiator. An isothermal cavity heated to a uniform temperature generates blackbody radiation, the characteristics of which are determined solely by the temperature of
the cavity. Such cavity radiators are commonly used as sources of radiation in temperature reference standards in the laboratory for calibrating thermographic instruments,
such as a FLIR Systems camera for example.
If the temperature of blackbody radiation increases to more than 525°C (977°F), the
source begins to be visible so that it appears to the eye no longer black. This is the incipient red heat temperature of the radiator, which then becomes orange or yellow as the
temperature increases further. In fact, the definition of the so-called color temperature of
an object is the temperature to which a blackbody would have to be heated to have the
same appearance.
Now consider three expressions that describe the radiation emitted from a blackbody.
17.3.1 Planck’s law
Figure 17.3 Max Planck (1858–1947)
Max Planck (1858–1947) was able to describe the spectral distribution of the radiation
from a blackbody by means of the following formula:
where:
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Theory of thermography
17
W
λb
Blackbody spectral radiant emittance at wavelength λ.
c
Velocity of light = 3 × 10
8
m/s
h Planck’s constant = 6.6 × 10
-34
Joule sec.
k Boltzmann’s constant = 1.4 × 10
-23
Joule/K.
T Absolute temperature (K) of a blackbody.
λ Wavelength (μm).
NOTE
The factor 10
-6
is used since spectral emittance in the curves is expressed in Watt/m2, μm.
Planck’s formula, when plotted graphically for various temperatures, produces a family of
curves. Following any particular Planck curve, the spectral emittance is zero at λ = 0,
then increases rapidly to a maximum at a wavelength λ
max
and after passing it approaches zero again at very long wavelengths. The higher the temperature, the shorter
the wavelength at which maximum occurs.
Figure 17.4 Blackbody spectral radiant emittance according to Planck’s law, plotted for various absolute
temperatures. 1: Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm
2
× 103(μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm)
17.3.2 Wien’s displacement law
By differentiating Planck’s formula with respect to λ, and finding the maximum, we have:
This is Wien’s formula (after Wilhelm Wien, 1864–1928), which expresses mathematically the common observation that colors vary from red to orange or yellow as the temperature of a thermal radiator increases. The wavelength of the color is the same as the
wavelength calculated for λ
max
. A good approximation of the value of λ
max
for a given
blackbody temperature is obtained by applying the rule-of-thumb 3 000/T μm. Thus, a
very hot star such as Sirius (11 000 K), emitting bluish-white light, radiates with the peak
of spectral radiant emittance occurring within the invisible ultraviolet spectrum, at wavelength 0.27 μm.
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Figure 17.5 Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928)
The sun (approx. 6 000 K) emits yellow light, peaking at about 0.5 μm in the middle of
the visible light spectrum.
At room temperature (300 K) the peak of radiant emittance lies at 9.7 μm, in the far infrared, while at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K) the maximum of the almost insignificant amount of radiant emittance occurs at 38 μm, in the extreme infrared wavelengths.
Figure 17.6 Planckian curves plotted on semi-log scales from 100 K to 1000 K. The dotted line represents
the locus of maximum radiant emittance at each temperature as described by Wien's displacement law. 1:
Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm
2
(μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm).
17.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's law
By integrating Planck’s formula from λ = 0 to λ = ∞, we obtain the total radiant emittance
(W
b
) of a blackbody:
This is the Stefan-Boltzmann formula (after Josef Stefan, 1835–1893, and Ludwig Boltz-
mann, 1844–1906), which states that the total emissive power of a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. Graphically, W
b
represents the
area below the Planck curve for a particular temperature. It can be shown that the radiant
emittance in the interval λ = 0 to λ
max
is only 25% of the total, which represents about the
amount of the sun’s radiation which lies inside the visible light spectrum.
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Figure 17.7 Josef Stefan (1835–1893), and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906)
Using the Stefan-Boltzmann formula to calculate the power radiated by the human body,
at a temperature of 300 K and an external surface area of approx. 2 m
2
, we obtain 1 kW.
This power loss could not be sustained if it were not for the compensating absorption of
radiation from surrounding surfaces, at room temperatures which do not vary too drastically from the temperature of the body – or, of course, the addition of clothing.
17.3.4 Non-blackbody emitters
So far, only blackbody radiators and blackbody radiation have been discussed. However,
real objects almost never comply with these laws over an extended wavelength region –
although they may approach the blackbody behavior in certain spectral intervals. For example, a certain type of white paint may appear perfectly white in the visible light spectrum, but becomes distinctly gray at about 2 μm, and beyond 3 μm it is almost black.
There are three processes which can occur that prevent a real object from acting like a
blackbody: a fraction of the incident radiation α may be absorbed, a fraction ρ may be reflected, and a fraction τ may be transmitted. Since all of these factors are more or less
wavelength dependent, the subscript λ is used to imply the spectral dependence of their
definitions. Thus:
• The spectral absorptance α
λ
= the ratio of the spectral radiant power absorbed by an
object to that incident upon it.
• The spectral reflectance ρ
λ
= the ratio of the spectral radiant power reflected by an ob-
ject to that incident upon it.
• The spectral transmittance τ
λ
= the ratio of the spectral radiant power transmitted
through an object to that incident upon it.
The sum of these three factors must always add up to the whole at any wavelength, so
we have the relation:
For opaque materials τλ= 0 and the relation simplifies to:
Another factor, called the emissivity, is required to describe the fraction ε of the radiant
emittance of a blackbody produced by an object at a specific temperature. Thus, we
have the definition:
The spectral emissivity ε
λ
= the ratio of the spectral radiant power from an object to that
from a blackbody at the same temperature and wavelength.
Expressed mathematically, this can be written as the ratio of the spectral emittance of
the object to that of a blackbody as follows:
Generally speaking, there are three types of radiation source, distinguished by the ways
in which the spectral emittance of each varies with wavelength.
• A blackbody, for which ε
λ
= ε = 1
• A graybody, for which ε
λ
= ε = constant less than 1
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17
• A selective radiator, for which ε varies with wavelength
According to Kirchhoff’s law, for any material the spectral emissivity and spectral absorp-
tance of a body are equal at any specified temperature and wavelength. That is:
From this we obtain, for an opaque material (since αλ+ ρλ= 1):
For highly polished materials ελapproaches zero, so that for a perfectly reflecting material (i.e. a perfect mirror) we have:
For a graybody radiator, the Stefan-Boltzmann formula becomes:
This states that the total emissive power of a graybody is the same as a blackbody at the
same temperature reduced in proportion to the value of ε from the graybody.
Figure 17.8 Spectral radiant emittance of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral radiant emittance; 2: Wavelength; 3: Blackbody; 4: Selective radiator; 5: Graybody.
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Figure 17.9 Spectral emissivity of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral emissivity; 2: Wavelength; 3: Black-
body; 4: Graybody; 5: Selective radiator.
17.4 Infrared semi-transparent materials
Consider now a non-metallic, semi-transparent body – let us say, in the form of a thick flat
plate of plastic material. When the plate is heated, radiation generated within its volume
must work its way toward the surfaces through the material in which it is partially absorbed. Moreover, when it arrives at the surface, some of it is reflected back into the interior. The back-reflected radiation is again partially absorbed, but some of it arrives at the
other surface, through which most of it escapes; part of it is reflected back again.
Although the progressive reflections become weaker and weaker they must all be added
up when the total emittance of the plate is sought. When the resulting geometrical series
is summed, the effective emissivity of a semi-transparent plate is obtained as:
When the plate becomes opaque this formula is reduced to the single formula:
This last relation is a particularly convenient one, because it is often easier to measure
reflectance than to measure emissivity directly.
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As already mentioned, when viewing an object, the camera receives radiation not only
from the object itself. It also collects radiation from the surroundings reflected via the object surface. Both these radiation contributions become attenuated to some extent by the
atmosphere in the measurement path. To this comes a third radiation contribution from
the atmosphere itself.
This description of the measurement situation, as illustrated in the figure below, is so far
a fairly true description of the real conditions. What has been neglected could for instance be sun light scattering in the atmosphere or stray radiation from intense radiation
sources outside the field of view. Such disturbances are difficult to quantify, however, in
most cases they are fortunately small enough to be neglected. In case they are not negligible, the measurement configuration is likely to be such that the risk for disturbance is
obvious, at least to a trained operator. It is then his responsibility to modify the measurement situation to avoid the disturbance e.g. by changing the viewing direction, shielding
off intense radiation sources etc.
Accepting the description above, we can use the figure below to derive a formula for the
calculation of the object temperature from the calibrated camera output.
Figure 18.1 A schematic representation of the general thermographic measurement situation.1: Surroundings; 2: Object; 3: Atmosphere; 4: Camera
Assume that the received radiation power W from a blackbody source of temperature
T
source
on short distance generates a camera output signal U
source
that is proportional to
the power input (power linear camera). We can then write (Equation 1):
or, with simplified notation:
where C is a constant.
Should the source be a graybody with emittance ε, the received radiation would conse-
quently be εW
source
.
We are now ready to write the three collected radiation power terms:
1. Emission from the object = ετW
obj
, where ε is the emittance of the object and τ is the
transmittance of the atmosphere. The object temperature is T
obj
.
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2. Reflected emission from ambient sources = (1 – ε)τW
refl
, where (1 – ε) is the reflec-
tance of the object. The ambient sources have the temperature T
refl
.
It has here been assumed that the temperature T
refl
is the same for all emitting surfaces within the halfsphere seen from a point on the object surface. This is of course
sometimes a simplification of the true situation. It is, however, a necessary simplification in order to derive a workable formula, and T
refl
can – at least theoretically – be giv-
en a value that represents an efficient temperature of a complex surrounding.
Note also that we have assumed that the emittance for the surroundings = 1. This is
correct in accordance with Kirchhoff’s law: All radiation impinging on the surrounding
surfaces will eventually be absorbed by the same surfaces. Thus the emittance = 1.
(Note though that the latest discussion requires the complete sphere around the object to be considered.)
3. Emission from the atmosphere = (1 – τ)τW
atm
, where (1 – τ) is the emittance of the at-
mosphere. The temperature of the atmosphere is T
atm
.
The total received radiation power can now be written (Equation 2):
We multiply each term by the constant C of Equation 1 and replace the CW products by
the corresponding U according to the same equation, and get (Equation 3):
Solve Equation 3 for U
obj
(Equation 4):
This is the general measurement formula used in all the FLIR Systems thermographic
equipment. The voltages of the formula are:
Table 18.1 Voltages
U
obj
Calculated camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature
T
obj
i.e. a voltage that can be directly converted into true requested
object temperature.
U
tot
Measured camera output voltage for the actual case.
U
refl
Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature
T
refl
according to the calibration.
U
atm
Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature
T
atm
according to the calibration.
The operator has to supply a number of parameter values for the calculation:
• the object emittance ε,
• the relative humidity,
• T
atm
• object distance (D
obj
)
• the (effective) temperature of the object surroundings, or the reflected ambient temperature T
refl
, and
• the temperature of the atmosphere T
atm
This task could sometimes be a heavy burden for the operator since there are normally
no easy ways to find accurate values of emittance and atmospheric transmittance for the
actual case. The two temperatures are normally less of a problem provided the surroundings do not contain large and intense radiation sources.
A natural question in this connection is: How important is it to know the right values of
these parameters? It could though be of interest to get a feeling for this problem already
here by looking into some different measurement cases and compare the relative
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18
magnitudes of the three radiation terms. This will give indications about when it is important to use correct values of which parameters.
The figures below illustrates the relative magnitudes of the three radiation contributions
for three different object temperatures, two emittances, and two spectral ranges: SW and
LW. Remaining parameters have the following fixed values:
• τ = 0.88
• T
refl
= +20°C (+68°F)
• T
atm
= +20°C (+68°F)
It is obvious that measurement of low object temperatures are more critical than measuring high temperatures since the ‘disturbing’ radiation sources are relatively much stronger in the first case. Should also the object emittance be low, the situation would be still
more difficult.
We have finally to answer a question about the importance of being allowed to use the
calibration curve above the highest calibration point, what we call extrapolation. Imagine
that we in a certain case measure U
tot
= 4.5 volts. The highest calibration point for the
camera was in the order of 4.1 volts, a value unknown to the operator. Thus, even if the
object happened to be a blackbody, i.e. U
obj
= U
tot
, we are actually performing extrapola-
tion of the calibration curve when converting 4.5 volts into temperature.
Let us now assume that the object is not black, it has an emittance of 0.75, and the trans-
mittance is 0.92. We also assume that the two second terms of Equation 4 amount to 0.5
volts together. Computation of U
obj
by means of Equation 4 then results in U
obj
= 4.5 /
0.75 / 0.92 – 0.5 = 6.0. This is a rather extreme extrapolation, particularly when considering that the video amplifier might limit the output to 5 volts! Note, though, that the application of the calibration curve is a theoretical procedure where no electronic or other
limitations exist. We trust that if there had been no signal limitations in the camera, and if
it had been calibrated far beyond 5 volts, the resulting curve would have been very much
the same as our real curve extrapolated beyond 4.1 volts, provided the calibration algorithm is based on radiation physics, like the FLIR Systems algorithm. Of course there
must be a limit to such extrapolations.
Figure 18.2 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (SW camera). 1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; T
refl
= 20°C (+68°F); T
atm
= 20°C (+68°F).
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Figure 18.3 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (LW cam-
era). 1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; T
refl
= 20°C (+68°F); T
atm
= 20°C (+68°F).
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19
This section presents a compilation of emissivity data from the infrared literature and
measurements made by FLIR Systems.
19.1 References
1. Mikaél A. Bramson: Infrared Radiation, A Handbook for Applications, Plenum press,
N.Y.
2. William L. Wolfe, George J. Zissis: The Infrared Handbook, Office of Naval Research,
Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.
3. Madding, R. P.: Thermographic Instruments and systems. Madison, Wisconsin: Uni-
versity of Wisconsin – Extension, Department of Engineering and Applied Science.
4. William L. Wolfe: Handbook of Military Infrared Technology, Office of Naval Research,
Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.
5. Jones, Smith, Probert: External thermography of buildings..., Proc. of the Society of
Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol.110, Industrial and Civil Applications of
Infrared Technology, June 1977 London.
6. Paljak, Pettersson: Thermography of Buildings, Swedish Building Research Institute,
Stockholm 1972.
7. Vlcek, J: Determination of emissivity with imaging radiometers and some emissivities
at λ = 5 µm. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing.
8. Kern: Evaluation of infrared emission of clouds and ground as measured by weather
satellites, Defence Documentation Center, AD 617 417.
9. Öhman, Claes: Emittansmätningar med AGEMA E-Box. Teknisk rapport, AGEMA
1999. (Emittance measurements using AGEMA E-Box. Technical report, AGEMA
1999.)
10. Matteï, S., Tang-Kwor, E: Emissivity measurements for Nextel Velvet coating 811-21
between –36°C AND 82°C.
11. Lohrengel & Todtenhaupt (1996)
12. ITC Technical publication 32.
13. ITC Technical publication 29.
NOTE
The emissivity values in the table below are recorded using a shortwave (SW) camera. The values
should be regarded as recommendations only and used with caution.
19.2 Tables
Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference
1 2 3 4 5 6
3M type 35 Vinyl electrical
tape (several
colors)
< 80 LW ≈ 0.96 13
3M type 88 Black vinyl electri-
cal tape
< 105 LW ≈ 0.96 13
3M type 88 Black vinyl electri-
cal tape
< 105 MW < 0.96 13
3M type Super 33
+
Black vinyl electrical tape
< 80 LW ≈ 0.96 13
Aluminum anodized sheet 100 T 0.55 2
Aluminum anodized, black,
dull
70
SW
0.67 9
Aluminum anodized, black,
dull
70 LW 0.95 9
Aluminum anodized, light
gray, dull
70
SW
0.61 9
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Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Aluminum anodized, light
gray, dull
70 LW 0.97 9
Aluminum as received, plate 100 T 0.09 4
Aluminum as received,
sheet
100 T 0.09 2
Aluminum cast, blast
cleaned
70
SW
0.47 9
Aluminum cast, blast
cleaned
70 LW 0.46 9
Aluminum dipped in HNO
3
,
plate
100 T 0.05 4
Aluminum foil
27 10 µm 0.04 3
Aluminum foil
27 3 µm 0.09 3
Aluminum oxidized, strongly 50–500 T 0.2–0.3 1
Aluminum polished 50–100 T 0.04–0.06 1
Aluminum polished plate 100 T 0.05 4
Aluminum polished, sheet 100 T 0.05 2
Aluminum rough surface
20–50 T 0.06–0.07 1
Aluminum roughened 27 10 µm 0.18 3
Aluminum roughened 27 3 µm 0.28 3
Aluminum sheet, 4 samples
differently
scratched
70
SW
0.05–0.08 9
Aluminum sheet, 4 samples
differently
scratched
70 LW 0.03–0.06 9
Aluminum
vacuum
deposited
20 T 0.04 2
Aluminum weathered,
heavily
17
SW
0.83–0.94 5
Aluminum bronze 20 T 0.60 1
Aluminum
hydroxide
powder T 0.28 1
Aluminum oxide activated, powder T 0.46 1
Aluminum oxide pure, powder
(alumina)
T 0.16 1
Asbestos board 20 T 0.96 1
Asbestos fabric T 0.78 1
Asbestos floor tile
35
SW
0.94 7
Asbestos
paper 40–400 T 0.93–0.95 1
Asbestos powder T 0.40–0.60 1
Asbestos slate 20 T 0.96 1
Asphalt paving 4 LLW 0.967 8
Brass dull, tarnished 20–350 T 0.22 1
Brass oxidized 100 T 0.61 2
Brass oxidized 70
SW
0.04–0.09 9
Brass oxidized 70 LW 0.03–0.07 9
Brass oxidized at 600°C
200–600 T 0.59–0.61 1
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Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Brass polished 200 T 0.03 1
Brass polished, highly 100 T 0.03 2
Brass rubbed with 80-
grit emery
20 T 0.20 2
Brass sheet, rolled 20 T 0.06 1
Brass sheet, worked
with emery
20 T 0.2 1
Brick alumina 17
SW
0.68 5
Brick
common 17
SW
0.86–0.81 5
Brick Dinas silica,
glazed, rough
1100 T 0.85 1
Brick Dinas silica,
refractory
1000 T 0.66 1
Brick Dinas silica, un-
glazed, rough
1000 T 0.80 1
Brick firebrick
17
SW
0.68 5
Brick fireclay
1000 T 0.75 1
Brick fireclay
1200 T 0.59 1
Brick fireclay
20 T 0.85 1
Brick
masonry 35
SW
0.94 7
Brick
masonry,
plastered
20 T 0.94 1
Brick red, common 20 T 0.93 2
Brick red, rough 20 T 0.88–0.93 1
Brick refractory,
corundum
1000 T 0.46 1
Brick refractory,
magnesite
1000–1300 T 0.38 1
Brick refractory,
strongly radiating
500–1000 T 0.8–0.9 1
Brick refractory, weakly
radiating
500–1000 T 0.65–0.75 1
Brick silica, 95% SiO
2
1230 T 0.66 1
Brick sillimanite, 33%
SiO
2
, 64% Al2O
3
1500 T 0.29 1
Brick waterproof
17
SW
0.87 5
Bronze phosphor bronze 70
SW
0.08 9
Bronze phosphor bronze 70 LW 0.06 9
Bronze polished 50 T 0.1 1
Bronze porous, rough 50–150 T 0.55 1
Bronze powder T 0.76–0.80 1
Carbon
candle soot 20 T 0.95 2
Carbon
charcoal powder T 0.96 1
Carbon graphite powder T 0.97 1
Carbon graphite, filed
surface
20 T 0.98 2
Carbon lampblack 20–400 T 0.95–0.97 1
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Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Chipboard
untreated 20
SW
0.90 6
Chromium
polished 50 T 0.10 1
Chromium polished 500–1000 T 0.28–0.38 1
Clay fired
70 T 0.91 1
Cloth
black 20 T 0.98 1
Concrete
20 T 0.92 2
Concrete dry 36 SW
0.95 7
Concrete rough 17 SW
0.97 5
Concrete
walkway
5
LLW 0.974 8
Copper
commercial,
burnished
20 T 0.07 1
Copper electrolytic, care-
fully polished
80 T 0.018 1
Copper
electrolytic,
polished
–34 T 0.006 4
Copper
molten 1100–1300 T 0.13–0.15 1
Copper
oxidized 50 T 0.6–0.7 1
Copper
oxidized to
blackness
T 0.88 1
Copper
oxidized, black 27 T 0.78 4
Copper
oxidized, heavily 20 T 0.78 2
Copper
polished 50–100 T 0.02 1
Copper
polished 100 T 0.03 2
Copper
polished,
commercial
27 T 0.03 4
Copper polished,
mechanical
22 T 0.015 4
Copper pure, carefully
prepared surface
22 T 0.008 4
Copper
scraped 27 T 0.07 4
Copper dioxide
powder T 0.84 1
Copper oxide
red, powder T 0.70 1
Ebonite T 0.89 1
Emery
coarse 80 T 0.85 1
Enamel 20 T 0.9 1
Enamel lacquer 20 T 0.85–0.95 1
Fiber board hard, untreated 20
SW
0.85 6
Fiber board masonite 70
SW
0.75 9
Fiber board masonite 70 LW 0.88 9
Fiber board particle board 70
SW
0.77 9
Fiber board particle board 70 LW 0.89 9
Fiber board porous, untreated 20
SW
0.85 6
Gold polished 130 T 0.018 1
Gold polished, carefully
200–600 T 0.02–0.03 1
Gold
polished, highly 100 T 0.02 2
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Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Granite
polished 20 LLW 0.849 8
Granite rough 21 LLW 0.879 8
Granite rough, 4 different
samples
70
SW
0.95–0.97 9
Granite rough, 4 different
samples
70 LW 0.77–0.87 9
Gypsum
20 T 0.8–0.9 1
Ice: See Water
Iron and steel cold rolled 70
SW
0.20 9
Iron and steel cold rolled 70 LW 0.09 9
Iron and steel covered with red
rust
20 T 0.61–0.85 1
Iron and steel electrolytic 100 T 0.05 4
Iron and steel electrolytic 22 T 0.05 4
Iron and steel electrolytic 260 T 0.07 4
Iron and steel electrolytic, care-
fully polished
175–225 T 0.05–0.06 1
Iron and steel freshly worked
with emery
20 T 0.24 1
Iron and steel ground sheet 950–1100 T 0.55–0.61 1
Iron and steel heavily rusted
sheet
20 T 0.69 2
Iron and steel hot rolled 130 T 0.60 1
Iron and steel hot rolled 20 T 0.77 1
Iron and steel oxidized 100 T 0.74 4
Iron and steel oxidized 100 T 0.74 1
Iron and steel oxidized 1227 T 0.89 4
Iron and steel oxidized 125–525 T 0.78–0.82 1
Iron and steel oxidized 200 T 0.79 2
Iron and steel oxidized 200–600 T 0.80 1
Iron and steel oxidized strongly 50 T 0.88 1
Iron and steel oxidized strongly 500 T 0.98 1
Iron and steel polished 100 T 0.07 2
Iron and steel polished 400–1000 T 0.14–0.38 1
Iron and steel polished sheet 750–1050 T 0.52–0.56 1
Iron and steel rolled sheet 50 T 0.56 1
Iron and steel rolled, freshly
20 T 0.24 1
Iron and steel rough, plane
surface
50 T 0.95–0.98 1
Iron and steel rusted red, sheet 22 T 0.69 4
Iron and steel rusted, heavily 17
SW
0.96 5
Iron and steel rusty, red 20 T 0.69 1
Iron and steel shiny oxide layer,
sheet,
20 T 0.82 1
Iron and steel shiny, etched 150 T 0.16 1
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Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Iron and steel wrought, carefully
polished
40–250 T 0.28 1
Iron galvanized heavily oxidized 70
SW
0.64 9
Iron galvanized heavily oxidized 70 LW 0.85 9
Iron galvanized sheet 92 T 0.07 4
Iron galvanized sheet, burnished 30 T 0.23 1
Iron galvanized sheet, oxidized 20 T 0.28 1
Iron tinned sheet 24 T 0.064 4
Iron, cast casting 50 T 0.81 1
Iron, cast ingots 1000 T 0.95 1
Iron, cast liquid 1300 T 0.28 1
Iron, cast machined 800–1000 T 0.60–0.70 1
Iron, cast oxidized 100 T 0.64 2
Iron, cast oxidized 260 T 0.66 4
Iron, cast oxidized 38 T 0.63 4
Iron, cast oxidized 538 T 0.76 4
Iron, cast
oxidized at 600°C
200–600 T 0.64–0.78 1
Iron, cast polished 200 T 0.21 1
Iron, cast polished 38 T 0.21 4
Iron, cast polished 40 T 0.21 2
Iron, cast unworked 900–1100 T 0.87–0.95 1
Krylon Ultra-flat
black 1602
Flat black Room tempera-
ture up to 175
LW ≈ 0.96 12
Krylon Ultra-flat
black 1602
Flat black Room tempera-
ture up to 175
MW ≈ 0.97 12
Lacquer 3 colors sprayed
on Aluminum
70
SW
0.50–0.53 9
Lacquer 3 colors sprayed
on Aluminum
70 LW 0.92–0.94 9
Lacquer Aluminum on
rough surface
20 T 0.4 1
Lacquer bakelite 80 T 0.83 1
Lacquer black, dull 40–100 T 0.96–0.98 1
Lacquer black, matte 100 T 0.97 2
Lacquer black, shiny,
sprayed on iron
20 T 0.87 1
Lacquer heat–resistant 100 T 0.92 1
Lacquer white 100 T 0.92 2
Lacquer white 40–100 T 0.8–0.95 1
Lead
oxidized at 200°C
200 T 0.63 1
Lead oxidized, gray 20 T 0.28 1
Lead oxidized, gray 22 T 0.28 4
Lead shiny 250 T 0.08 1
Lead unoxidized,
polished
100 T 0.05 4
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Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Lead red 100 T 0.93 4
Lead red, powder 100 T 0.93 1
Leather tanned T 0.75–0.80 1
Lime T 0.3–0.4 1
Magnesium 22 T 0.07 4
Magnesium 260 T 0.13 4
Magnesium 538 T 0.18 4
Magnesium polished 20 T 0.07 2
Magnesium
powder
T 0.86 1
Molybdenum 1500–2200 T 0.19–0.26 1
Molybdenum 600–1000 T 0.08–0.13 1
Molybdenum filament
700–2500 T 0.1–0.3 1
Mortar 17
SW
0.87 5
Mortar dry 36
SW
0.94 7
Nextel Velvet
811-21 Black
Flat black –60–150 LW > 0.97 10 and
11
Nichrome rolled 700 T 0.25 1
Nichrome sandblasted 700 T 0.70 1
Nichrome wire, clean 50 T 0.65 1
Nichrome wire, clean 500–1000 T 0.71–0.79 1
Nichrome wire, oxidized 50–500 T 0.95–0.98 1
Nickel bright matte 122 T 0.041 4
Nickel commercially
pure, polished
100 T 0.045 1
Nickel commercially
pure, polished
200–400 T 0.07–0.09 1
Nickel electrolytic 22 T 0.04 4
Nickel electrolytic 260 T 0.07 4
Nickel electrolytic 38 T 0.06 4
Nickel electrolytic 538 T 0.10 4
Nickel electroplated on
iron, polished
22 T 0.045 4
Nickel electroplated on
iron, unpolished
20 T 0.11–0.40 1
Nickel electroplated on
iron, unpolished
22 T 0.11 4
Nickel electroplated,
polished
20 T 0.05 2
Nickel oxidized 1227 T 0.85 4
Nickel oxidized 200 T 0.37 2
Nickel oxidized 227 T 0.37 4
Nickel
oxidized at 600°C
200–600 T 0.37–0.48 1
Nickel polished 122 T 0.045 4
Nickel wire 200–1000 T 0.1–0.2 1
Nickel oxide 1000–1250 T 0.75–0.86 1
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Emissivity tables19
Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Nickel oxide 500–650 T 0.52–0.59 1
Oil, lubricating 0.025 mm film
20 T 0.27 2
Oil, lubricating 0.050 mm film
20 T 0.46 2
Oil, lubricating 0.125 mm film
20 T 0.72 2
Oil, lubricating film on Ni base:
Ni base only
20 T 0.05 2
Oil, lubricating thick coating 20 T 0.82 2
Paint 8 different colors
and qualities
70
SW
0.88–0.96 9
Paint 8 different colors
and qualities
70 LW 0.92–0.94 9
Paint Aluminum, vari-
ous ages
50–100 T 0.27–0.67 1
Paint cadmium yellow T 0.28–0.33 1
Paint chrome green T 0.65–0.70 1
Paint cobalt blue T 0.7–0.8 1
Paint oil 17
SW
0.87 5
Paint oil based, aver-
age of 16 colors
100 T 0.94 2
Paint oil, black flat
20
SW
0.94 6
Paint oil, black gloss 20
SW
0.92 6
Paint oil, gray flat
20
SW
0.97 6
Paint oil, gray gloss 20
SW
0.96 6
Paint oil, various colors 100 T 0.92–0.96 1
Paint plastic, black 20
SW
0.95 6
Paint plastic, white 20
SW
0.84 6
Paper 4 different colors
70
SW
0.68–0.74 9
Paper 4 different colors
70 LW 0.92–0.94 9
Paper black T 0.90 1
Paper black, dull T 0.94 1
Paper black, dull 70
SW
0.86 9
Paper black, dull 70 LW 0.89 9
Paper blue, dark T 0.84 1
Paper coated with black
lacquer
T 0.93 1
Paper
green
T 0.85 1
Paper red T 0.76 1
Paper white 20 T 0.7–0.9 1
Paper white bond 20 T 0.93 2
Paper white, 3 different
glosses
70
SW
0.76–0.78 9
Paper white, 3 different
glosses
70 LW 0.88–0.90 9
Paper yellow T 0.72 1
Plaster 17
SW
0.86 5
#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US
64
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Emissivity tables19
Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Plaster plasterboard,
untreated
20
SW
0.90 6
Plaster rough coat 20 T 0.91 2
Plastic glass fibre lami-
nate (printed circ.
board)
70
SW
0.94 9
Plastic glass fibre lami-
nate (printed circ.
board)
70 LW 0.91 9
Plastic polyurethane iso-
lation board
70 LW 0.55 9
Plastic polyurethane iso-
lation board
70
SW
0.29 9
Plastic PVC, plastic floor,
dull, structured
70
SW
0.94 9
Plastic
PVC, plastic floor,
dull, structured
70 LW 0.93 9
Platinum 100 T 0.05 4
Platinum 1000–1500 T 0.14–0.18 1
Platinum 1094 T 0.18 4
Platinum 17 T 0.016 4
Platinum 22 T 0.03 4
Platinum 260 T 0.06 4
Platinum 538 T 0.10 4
Platinum pure, polished 200–600 T 0.05–0.10 1
Platinum ribbon 900–1100 T 0.12–0.17 1
Platinum wire 1400 T 0.18 1
Platinum wire 500–1000 T 0.10–0.16 1
Platinum wire 50–200 T 0.06–0.07 1
Porcelain glazed 20 T 0.92 1
Porcelain white, shiny T 0.70–0.75 1
Rubber hard 20 T 0.95 1
Rubber soft, gray, rough
20 T 0.95 1
Sand T 0.60 1
Sand
20 T 0.90 2
Sandstone polished 19 LLW 0.909 8
Sandstone
rough 19 LLW 0.935 8
Silver polished 100 T 0.03 2
Silver
pure, polished 200–600 T 0.02–0.03 1
Skin
human 32 T 0.98 2
Slag boiler 0–100 T 0.97–0.93 1
Slag
boiler 1400–1800 T 0.69–0.67 1
Slag
boiler 200–500 T 0.89–0.78 1
Slag boiler 600–1200 T 0.76–0.70 1
Snow: See Water
Soil dry 20 T 0.92 2
#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US
65
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Emissivity tables19
Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Soil
saturated with
water
20 T 0.95 2
Stainless steel alloy, 8% Ni, 18%
Cr
500 T 0.35 1
Stainless steel rolled 700 T 0.45 1
Stainless steel sandblasted 700 T 0.70 1
Stainless steel
sheet, polished 70
SW
0.18 9
Stainless steel sheet, polished 70 LW 0.14 9
Stainless steel
sheet, untreated,
somewhat
scratched
70
SW
0.30 9
Stainless steel sheet, untreated,
somewhat
scratched
70 LW 0.28 9
Stainless steel type 18-8, buffed
20 T 0.16 2
Stainless steel type 18-8, oxi-
dized at 800°C
60 T 0.85 2
Stucco rough, lime 10–90 T 0.91 1
Styrofoam insulation 37 SW
0.60 7
Tar T 0.79–0.84 1
Tar
paper 20 T 0.91–0.93 1
Tile glazed 17
SW
0.94 5
Tin burnished 20–50 T 0.04–0.06 1
Tin tin–plated sheet
iron
100 T 0.07 2
Titanium
oxidized at 540°C
1000 T 0.60 1
Titanium
oxidized at 540°C
200 T 0.40 1
Titanium oxidized at 540°C
500 T 0.50 1
Titanium polished 1000 T 0.36 1
Titanium polished 200 T 0.15 1
Titanium polished 500 T 0.20 1
Tungsten 1500–2200 T 0.24–0.31 1
Tungsten 200 T 0.05 1
Tungsten 600–1000 T 0.1–0.16 1
Tungsten filament
3300 T 0.39 1
Varnish flat
20
SW
0.93 6
Varnish on oak parquet
floor
70
SW
0.90 9
Varnish on oak parquet
floor
70 LW 0.90–0.93 9
Wallpaper slight pattern,
light gray
20
SW
0.85 6
Wallpaper slight pattern, red 20
SW
0.90 6
Water distilled 20 T 0.96 2
Water frost crystals
–10 T 0.98 2
Water ice, covered with
heavy frost
0 T 0.98 1
Water ice, smooth 0 T 0.97 1
#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US
66
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Emissivity tables19
Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;
3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Water ice, smooth –10 T 0.96 2
Water layer >0.1 mm
thick
0–100 T 0.95–0.98 1
Water
snow
T 0.8 1
Water
snow –10 T 0.85 2
Wood 17
SW
0.98 5
Wood 19 LLW 0.962 8
Wood ground T 0.5–0.7 1
Wood pine, 4 different
samples
70
SW
0.67–0.75 9
Wood pine, 4 different
samples
70 LW 0.81–0.89 9
Wood planed 20 T 0.8–0.9 1
Wood planed oak 20 T 0.90 2
Wood planed oak 70
SW
0.77 9
Wood planed oak 70 LW 0.88 9
Wood plywood, smooth,
dry
36
SW
0.82 7
Wood plywood,
untreated
20
SW
0.83 6
Wood white, damp 20 T 0.7–0.8 1
Zinc oxidized at 400°C
400 T 0.11 1
Zinc oxidized surface
1000–1200 T 0.50–0.60 1
Zinc polished 200–300 T 0.04–0.05 1
Zinc sheet 50 T 0.20 1
#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US
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A note on the technical production of this publication
This publication was produced using XML — the eXtensible Markup Language. For more information
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A note on the typeface used in this publication
This publication was typeset using Linotype Helvetica™ World. Helvetica™ was designed by Max
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LOEF (List Of Effective Files)
T501109.xml; en-US; AE; 23547; 2015-02-27
T505552.xml; en-US; 9599; 2013-11-05
T505551.xml; en-US; 22782; 2015-01-27
T505469.xml; en-US; 23215; 2015-02-19
T505013.xml; en-US; 9229; 2013-10-03
T505799.xml; en-US; ; 23545; 2015-02-27
T505800.xml; en-US; ; 23541; 2015-02-26
T505801.xml; en-US; ; 23545; 2015-02-27
T505816.xml; en-US; -; -; T505470.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505012.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505007.xml; en-US; 21877; 2014-12-08
T505004.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505000.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505005.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505001.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505006.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505002.xml; en-US; 18260; 2014-10-06
#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US
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last page
Publ. No.: T559918
Release: AE
Commit:
23547
Head: 23547
Language: en-US
Modified: 2015-02-27
Formatted: 2015-03-03
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FLIR Systems, Inc.
27700 SW Parkway Ave.
Wilsonville, OR 97070
USA
Telephone: +1-503-498-3547
Website
http://www.flir.com
Customer support
http://support.flir.com
Copyright
© 2015, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide.
Disclaimer
Specifications subject to change without further notice. Models and accessories subject to regional market considerations. License procedures may apply.
Products described herein may be subject to US Export Regulations. Please refer to exportquestions@flir.com with any questions.
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