CITROEN DS series, ID series, CX series, GS series, GSA series Technical Manual

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The Citroën Technical Guide

There are many car manufacturers, makes, models and versions on the road today but—as we all know—none of them compares to Citroën in its engineering excellence, especially regarding suspension comfort, roadholding, and stability.

In this book we tried to describe how the various subsystems work. We never intended to replace service manuals or similar technical instructions. Illustrations are schematic, focusing on the principles of operation rather than on minute details of implementation.

This guide is not linked to any specific Citroën model but describes all systems and solutions used on a large number of cars from the glorious line of DS, ID, CX, GS, GSA, BX, XM, Xantia, Xsara and the C5.

Table of Contents

Fuel Injection

Electronic Fuel Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Diesel engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Electronic Diesel Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Diesel Direct Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Suspension

A Suspension Primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Hydropneumatic Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Hydractive I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Hydractive II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Anti-sink system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Activa Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Hydractive 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Steering

Power Assisted Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

DIRAVI Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Self-steering Rear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Brakes

Standard braking system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Anti-lock Braking System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Electrical Systems

Multiplex network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Air Conditioning

Air conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Appendix

ORGA number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Index

Fuel Injection

The Citroën Guide Fuel Injection: Electronic Fuel Injection 5

Electronic Fuel Injection

The Otto engine needs a mixture of fuel and air for its operation. It would be the task of the fuel supply—carburetor or injection—to provide the engine with the ideal mixture. Unfortunately, there is no such thing as an ideal mixture.

Perfect combustion, as chemistry calls it, would require air and fuel in proportion of 14.7 parts to 1 (this is the stochiometric ratio). While this might be satisfactory for the scientists, the real-life conditions of a vehicle call for slightly different characteristics.

We use the ratio of actual mixture to the stochiometric mixture, called lambda (l), to describe the composition of the mixture entering the engine: l=1 denotes the chemi

cally ideal mixture, l<1 means rich, l>1 is lean.

The best performance would require a slightly rich mix

ture, with the lambda around 0.9, while fuel economy would need a slightly lean one, between 1.1 and 1.3. Some harmful components in exhaust gas would reduce in quan

tity between lambda values of 1 to 1.2, others below 0.8 or above 1.4. And if this is not yet enough, a cold engine re

quires a very rich mixture to keep running. After warming

up, the mixture can return to normal, but the temperature of the incoming air still plays a significant role: the cooler the air, the denser it becomes, and this influences the lambda ratio as well.

All these requirements are impossible to satisfy with sim

pler mechanical devices like carburetors. Electronic fuel in

jection provides a system that can measure the many cir

cumstances the engine is operating in and decide on the amount of fuel (in other words, the lambda ratio) entering the engine. By carefully adjusting the internal rules of this device, manufacturers can adapt the characteristic of the fuel injection to the actual requirements: a sporty GTi would demand rather different settings than a city car; be

sides, catalytic converters have their own demands that, as we will later see, upset the applecart quite vehemently.

Earlier, fuel injection systems only knew about fuel, the ignition was supplied by traditional methods. Later on, these systems (now called engine management systems) took on the duty of generating the sparks as well. But even with this second incarnation, the fuel injection part re

mained practically the same, thus the following section ap

plies to both kind of systems.

Fuel injection

The two most important inputs describing the actual oper

ating condition of the engine, thus determining the fuel de

mand are the engine speed (revolution) and engine load. The engine speed can be measured easily on systems using traditional ignition: the ignition primary circuit gener

ates pulses with their frequency proportional to engine speed (the tachometer uses this same signal to show the rpm to the driver). When the injection system provides the ignition as well, it cannot at the same time rely on it, so an additional sensor is used instead.

The engine load is usually determined by measuring the quantity of air the engine tries to suck in. There are various methods of attaining this: earlier systems used a flap which is deflected by the air flowing through the sensor—the an

gle of deflection is proportional to the amount of air pass

ing through (air flow sensor, AFS). Later systems used a pressure sensor measuring the pressure inside the inlet man

ifold (manifold absolute pressure, MAP sensor). Yet an

other system (although not used on Citroëns) heats a plati

num wire and lets the incoming air passing around cool it; by measuring the current needed to keep the wire tempera

ture at a constant value above the temperature of the in

coming air, the mass of air can be determined. Some sim

pler systems do not even measure the amount of air but use a pre-stored table in their computer to approximate it based upon the engine speed and the position of the throt

tle pedal—not that accurate but certainly much cheaper.

Under ideal conditions, these two inputs would already

be enough to control the engine. A large table can be set

up, like the one il

lustrated here (of course, this is an il

lustration only, the actual values mean nothing here), and for any pair of in

coming engine speed and load values the necessary fuel amount can be determined. By keeping the pressure of fuel constant behind the injector valves, the amount of fuel in

jected depends solely on the time period the injectors are opened for, hence, the table can contain injector opening times.

An this is exactly how it is done in modern injection sys

tems: the controlling microcomputer keeps a lookup table like this to determine the base pulse width. Earlier systems were constructed from discrete, analog elements, not like a small computer; a more or less equivalent circuit made of various hybrid resistance arrays and semiconductors were used for the same purpose.

Chip tuning, by the way, is the simple operation of replac

ing the said table with another one, yielding different char

acteristics (usually to gain power, allowing for worse fuel economy). As the computer stores this table in a program

mable memory—similar in function to the BIOS in desktop computers—, replacing it is possible. The earlier systems with analog circuits cannot be modified that easily.

So, we obtained the base pulse width from the table but

as the operating conditions of automotive engines are

Amount of fuel

injected

Engine load

0% 5% … 100%

Engine speed

idle 33…3

850 rpm 45…5

900 rpm 56…7

… …………

6,000 rpm 98…10

The Citroën Guide Fuel Injection: Electronic Fuel Injection 6

hardly ideal for any reasonable amount of time, several cor

rections have to be applied. Our air flow meter measures the volume of the air but we would need to know the mass of the air to calculate the required lambda ratio—remem

ber, colder air is denser, thus the same volume contains more gas, requiring more fuel to provide the same mixture. To accomplish this, the injection system uses an air temper- ature sensor (ATS)—although on some systems it mea

sures not the air but the fuel-air mixture—and lengthens the injector pulse width according to this input (except for the case of the airflow meter using a heated wire, this one takes the air temperature into account automatically, conse

quently, there is no need for correction).

It is not only the external circumstances that require special consideration. While most of the time an engine works under partial load, so it makes sense to spare fuel by basing on a relatively leaner mixture across this range of operation, cold start and warm-up, modest decelera

tion and fully depressed throt

tle, idle speed all require dif

ferent treatment.

The position of the throttle pedal is communicated to the computer by a throttle posi

tion switch (TS) or throttle potentiometer (TP). These

devices signal both fully open and fully closed (idling) throt

tle positions. When the pedal is fully depressed, the com

puter makes the mixture richer to provide good acceler

ation performance.

Idle speed is more compli

cated: the throttle is closed, so there has to be a bypass to let the engine receive fuel to run. In simpler systems this by

pass is constant (but manu

ally adjustable to set the cor

rect idle speed) in a warm en

gine, providing a fixed amount of air, although the computer can decide on a varying amount of fuel to be injected. Later systems gener

ally use a controlling device changing the cross section of the bypass, regulating the amount of air coming through (these systems often have no facility to adjust the idle speed, the computer knows the correct revolution and maintains it without any help from mechanical de

vices). The controlling device

can either be an idle speed control valve (ISCV) or an idle control stepper motor (ICSM). The first one can only open or close the idle bypass, so any regulation must be done by rapidly opening and closing it by the computer, the second one can gradually change the bypass, hence fine tuning is easier and smoother.

Just like the choke on carburetors, there is a complete

subsystem dealing with cold start and warm up, as the re

quirements under such circumstances are so different from the normal operation that they cannot be fulfilled by the regular control. The ECU monitors the ignition key switch to learn when the engine is started, then looks for the input from the coolant temperature sensor (CTS) to

distributor

engine

ECU

fuel pump

CTS

MAPATS* TP

throttle

ISCM

fuel

njector & pressure regulator

ATS*

fuel exhaust air coolant

not present in all systems

EFI MONOPOINT

distributor

fuel exhaust air coolant

not present in all systems

OS*

engine

pressure regulator

ECU

fuel pump

CTS

AFS ATSTS

AAV

throttle

idle speed idle mixture

fuel

injectors

fuel rail

CSV*

EFI MULTIPOINT

The Citroën Guide Fuel Injection: Electronic Fuel Injection 7

see whether this is a cold start or a warm one. If the coolant fluid is measured cold, a special warm-up sequence will be started.

The engine needs significantly more fuel, a richer mix

ture during this period. This extra fuel is used for two pur

poses: first, part of the fuel injected is condensed on the cold walls of the engine, second, to ensure better lubrication, the engine should run at an elevated revolution during this period.

There are two ways to provide more fuel: through the

usual injectors, making the computer inject more gas than normal, or by using an additional cold start injector (CSV)—there is only one such injector even in multipoint systems. This injector is fed through a temperature-timer switch, protruding into the coolant just like the CTS, plus it is heated by its own electric heater. The injector operates as long as the ignition key is in the starting position but its be

havior later on is governed by the timer switch. The colder the engine initially is, the longer it stays closed to let the cold start injector do its job. In a warm engine (above 40 °C) it does not close at all.

Without a cold start injector, the computer itself adds about 50% extra fuel initially and drops this surplus to about 25% until the end of a 30-second time period.

From that point, the surplus is dictated by the warming of the engine, communicated by the CTS to the computer. EFI systems without an idle speed control device often use an electromechanical auxiliary air valve (AAV). This valve, which is fully open when the engine is still cold but will close gradually as it warms up, lets an additional amount of air measured by the AFS pass through the sys

tem. Because it is measured, it tricks the computer into pro

viding more fuel. The valve is heated by its own heating ele

ment as well as the engine, thus it closes shortly.

The injectors are electrovalves. As with any electromag

net, there is a small time delay between the arrival of the control signal and the actual opening of the valve due to the build-up of electromagnetic fields. The length of this de

lay depends heavily on the voltage the injectors are fed with. The same pulse width would result in shorter open

ing time, hence less fuel in

jected if the battery voltage drops below nominal (which is often the case on cold morn

ings). The injection computer therefore has to sense the bat

tery voltage and to lengthen the injector pulse width if nec

essary.

The final, total pulse width

(also called injector duty cy

cle) is calculated by summing

up all these values received: the base pulse width from the RPM/AFS table lookup, the various correction factors based on the temperature sen

sors, throttle position and the like, plus finally, the voltage correction.

As the computer has already calculated the exact

amount of fuel to be injected, there is only one task left: ac

tually injecting it. There are two possible ways: to inject the fuel into the common part of the inlet, still before the throt

tle butterfly, or to inject them close to the inlet valves, indi

vidually to each cylinder. Depending on the solution cho

sen, the system will be called monopoint or multipoint. Monopoint fuel injection requires a single common injec

tor; the smaller cost and simpler setup makes it more com

mon on smaller engines (in the case of Citroëns, the 1380 ccm ones). In all cases, the computer actually calculates the half of the fuel amount required as it will be injected in two installments, once for each revolution of the engine.

The injectors of the multipoint system can be operated si

multaneously or individually. Previous Citroëns on the road today still use simultaneous operation. Individual cylinder in

jection, however, holds great potential—just to name one, some of the cylinders of a larger engine can be temporarily shut off by cutting off their fuel supply if the car is operat

ing at partial load, saving a considerable amount of fuel—, so we are sure to meet this sort of fuel injection systems in the future.

All systems—regardless of the number of injectors—use a similar fuel supply layout. The fuel is drawn from the tank by a continuously operating fuel pump, transported via a fil

ter to the injectors, then back to the tank. There is a pres

sure regulator in the circuit as well to keep the pressure of the fuel at a constant pressure above that in the inlet mani

fold (this regulator is a separate unit on multipoint systems while integrated into the injector on monopoint ones). As the pressure difference between the two sides of the injec

tors are constant, the amount of fuel injected depends solely on the opening time of the injectors. The pressure used in contemporary EFI systems is 3 to 5 bars.

This is practically all there is to it, there are only a couple of safety and economy features in addition. If the engine revolution exceeds a certain limit (between 1,200 and 1,500 usually) and the throttle is closed—this is called decel

distributor

engine

ECU

CTS

MAPATS* TP

throttle

ISCM

CAS

fuel exhaust air coolant

not present in all systems

fuel pump

fuel

njector & pressure regulator

ATS*

EMS MONOPOINT

The Citroën Guide Fuel Injection: Electronic Fuel Injection 8

eration—, the momentum of the car is sufficient to rotate the engine through the wheels. To save fuel, the injection is cut off. As soon as the engine speed drops below the limit or the throttle is opened, the injection is reintroduced—sup

posedly smoothly and gradually, however, many drivers complain about some jerkiness.

To avoid prolonged operation at revolutions exceeding the specification of the engine, the injection is cut off above a maximum engine speed (6,000-7,000rpm, depending on the engine). And finally, to avoid the hazard of fire in a crash and the fuel squirting from the injection system with the engine stopped or possibly destroyed, the relay of the in

jectors is controlled by the ECU, allowing fuel injection only when the ignition (or the signal of the corresponding sen

sor) is present.

Who will light our fire?

Models with simpler fuel injection have traditional (elec

tronic) ignition systems which are practically equivalent to the solution used on cars with carburetors.

The distributor has two purposes: generating the driv

ing signal for the ignition system and to distribute the high voltage to the four cylinders in turn. This two parts inside the distributor are electrically separate but mechanically coupled—both are driven by the camshaft to keep them in sync with the strokes of the engine.

The ignition signal thus starts from the distributor. A magnetic induction sensor (consisting of a rotating foursided magnet and a pick-up coil) sends a pulse to the igni

tion module at each firing point. This pulse will be switched to the ignition coil (an autotransformer; auto here does not mean that it is manufactured for automotive use, auto

transformers have their primary and secondary coils con

nected) by a power transistor inside the module. The cur

rent change in the primary coil induces very high voltage spikes in the secondary circuit. These spikes then go back to the HT part of the distributor which in turn sends them to the spark plug of the actual cylinder requiring the spark.

It takes some time for the

spark to ignite the fuel-air mix

ture inside the combustion chamber: this means that the spark has to arrive slightly be

fore the piston reaches its top position (top dead center, TDC), so that it will receive the downward force of the deto

nation in the right moment. However, as the engine speed increases, so does the speed of the piston or the distance it travels during a given period of time. Therefore, the exact time of the spark has to be ad

vanced as the revolution in

creases. Traditional systems do this by adding a vacuum line connecting the inlet mani

fold to the distributor. As the

vacuum increases with the engine revolution, its sucking force rotates the inner part of the distributor slightly away from its original position, causing all its timing devices switch earlier, as required by the value of the timing ad

vance.

Clever systems can get away without a distributor: some

CXs have such an ignition setup. This systems has two igni

tion coils, both serving two spark plugs at the same time. These two spark plugs belong to cylinders whose pistons move in unison: one is compressing, the other exhausting. Although both plugs generate sparks at the same time, the one in the exhausting cylinder will be wasted.

Two birds with one stone

We made the ignition seem too simple in the previous sec

tion. While it works as described, there are many factors to be considered if we want to build a modern ignition sys

tem. For instance, the timing advance depends not only on engine speed but on many other factors as well: engine load, engine temperature and to some extent, the air tem

perature.

Just like the carburetor was not really good at deciding the amount of fuel required by the engine, the traditional ignition is similarly not perfect in estimating the timing ad

vance and other characteristics of the sparks needed. An electronic system similar to the one used for fuel injection shows clear advantages over any earlier system.

And as they use about the same sensors and rely on each

other, what could be more logical than to integrate them into a common system, elegantly called an engine man-

agement system?

If we compare the schematics of the corresponding EFI and EMS systems, they look almost the same. There are two notable differences: the small arrow on the line connecting the ECU to the distributor has changed its direction and a new sensor, a crank angle sensor (CAS) has appeared.

distributor

OS*

engine

pressure regulator

ECU

fuel pump

injectors

CTS

AFS ATSTS

AAV

throttle

ISCV

idle mixture

fuel

CO pot

CAS KS

fuel rail

fuel exhaust air coolant

not present in all systems

EMS MULTIPOINT

The Citroën Guide Fuel Injection: Electronic Fuel Injection 9

Both changes have to do with the fact that the enhanced system, whose new task is to generate the ignition signals as well, cannot at the same time build on them as inputs. This new sensor—practically a replacement for the induc

tion magnet in the distributor of earlier systems—informs the computer of both engine speed and camshaft position.

The flywheel has steel pins set into its periphery. As it ro

tates, the inductive magnet of the CAS sends pulses to the computer. Two of the pins are missing and this hole passes before the sensor just as the first piston reaches its TDC posi

tion. The missing pins cause a variance in the sensor output that can be read by the ECU easily.

The rest is the same: the base pulse width is calculated

based on the CAS and AFS/MAP sensors. The correction fac

tors—air temperature, idle or full load, starting, warming up, battery voltage—sum up into an additional pulse width. Besides, the same input signals (AFS, CAS, CTS and TS/TP) are used for another lookup in a table, yielding the correct dwell time and timing advance for the ignition. The dwell period remains practically constant but the duty cycle varies with the chaging engine speed. The ignition signal is amplified and sent to a distributor containing only second

ary HT components: it does not create the ignition signal only routes the HT current to each spark plug in firing order.

Some systems also have a knock sensor (KS), sensing

the engine vibration associated with pre-ignition (so-called pinking). If this occurs, the ignition timing is retarded to avoid engine damage.

Think green

As we saw, fuel injection and engine management systems are capable of determining the ideal amount of fuel to be in

jected, depending on the conditions of operation and sev

eral other factors in the engine. It is capable of deciding on lean mixture for general, partial load to save fuel, or on rich mixture when performance considerations call for this.

Unfortunately, this is not what such systems are used for today. With the proliferation of catalytic converters, the only concern of our systems is the welfare of the converter.

Ideal combustion would not generate polluting materi

als in the exhaust gas. Fuel is a mixture of various hydrocar

bons (C

nHm

), which when burned together with the oxygen

) of the air, should transform to carbon-dioxide (CO2)

and water vapor (H

O). However, combustion is never ideal, besides, fuel contains many additives: the exhaust gas, in addition to the products mentioned, has various byprod

ucts as well, some of them toxic: carbon-monoxide (CO), various unburned hydrocarbons (C

nHm

), nitrogen-oxides

(NO

) and lead (Pb) in various substances coming from the

anti-knock additives found in the fuel.

The relative amount of these byproducts depend on the lambda ratio of the air-fuel mix

ture burned. As shown on the di

agram, a value between 1.2 and

1.3 would give a relatively low percentage of toxic byproducts while, as we can recall, being a lean mixture would be in the right direction towards fuel economy.

By using platinum (Pt) or rhodium (Rh) as a catalyst—a catalyst is a substance whose presence is required to enable (or to boost) a chemical transformation while it does not take part in the process itself, remaining intact—the follow

ing processes can be carried out:

2 CO + O

W 2 CO2(oxidation)

2 C

2H6

+ 7 O2W 4 CO2+ 6 H2O (oxidation)

2 NO + 2 CO W N

+ 2 CO2(reduction) These precious metals are applied in a very thin layer to the surface of a porous ceramic body with thousands of holes to make the surface contacting the exhaust gases much greater. Actually, a converter does not contain more than 2 or 3 gramms of these metals.

If you compare this diagram with the previous one, you will see that the real gain is the supression of nitrogen-oxides. CO and C

mHn

will be reduced as well, although to a much lesser extent. Nevertheless, the overall reduction in polluting byprod

ucts is quite high, amounting up to 90 percent. Lead sub

stances are not considered as lead must not reach the converter anyway, it would clog the fine pores of the converter in no time. The fuel used in cars equipped with a catalytic converter has to be completely free of lead.

But there is something of even greater consequence de

picted on the diagram: to keep the amount of pollutants down, the lambda has to be kept inside a very small value range, practically at l=1 all the time. If the lambda drops just a fraction below 1, the CO emission rises sharply, while a small step above 1 skyrockets the NO

emission. The main task of the fuel injection is therefore to ensure that the airfuel mixture sticks to the stochiometric ratio all the time. This means higher consumption than the one of a car with fuel injection without a converter to start with.

There are situations where this lambda cannot be ob

served. A cold engine will simply stall without a much richer mixture, thus the cold start mechanism does not obey the lambda control. The catalytic converter does not work at all below 250 °C, so this is not a significant compromise (its normal operating temperature is 400 to 800 °C, above 800 °C is already harmful; unburned fuel getting into the ex

haust and detonating inside the converter could cause over

heating, thus ignition and similar problems has to be recti

fied as soon as possible in catalytic cars).

Dynamic acceleration (full throttle) is also something not observing the welfare of the converter. Reducing pollution might be a noble cause but to be able to end an overtaking is even more important…

The system uses an oxygen sensor (OS, also called lambda sensor) which measures the oxygen content of the exhaust gas. It is located between the engine exhaust and the catalytic converter. Similarly to the converter, it is not functional below 300 °C, hence it has its own heating ele

ment to make it reach its operating temperature faster.

The computer uses the input from this sensor to keep the mixture injected always as close to l=1 as possible. If the sensor is still too cold to give accurate input, the computer can ignore it safely.

0.9 1.11.00.99 V

0.8 1.21.0 1.3

The Citroën Guide Fuel Injection: Diesel engines 10

Diesel engines

Diesel oil has been a contender to gasoline for many decades. Earlier diesel engines were not re

fined enough to win the hearts of many drivers but recent advances in technology made these en

gines not only a worthy competitor in all areas but in some features—fuel economy or low end torque, to name just two—even exceeding the characteristics of their gasoline counterparts. And in addition to the general technological advan

tages, Citroën’s diesel engines have a widely ac

cepted reputation—even among people blaming the quirkiness of its suspension or other fea

tures—of being excellent and robust.

As it is widely known, diesel engines have no ignition to initi

ate their internal combustion, they rely on the self-combus

tion of the diesel oil entering into a cylinder filled with hot air. Due to this principle of operation, the supply of the fuel has to comply with much more demanding requirements than it is necessary in the case of gasoline engines.

Unlike in the gasoline engine, not a mixture but air en

ters into the cylinders via the inlet valves. During the adia

batic compression all the energy absorbed is used to in

crease the temperature of the gas. The small droplets of fuel will be injected at high velocity near the end of the com

pression stroke into this heated gas still in motion. As they start to evaporate, they form a combustible mixture with the air present which self-ignites at around 800 °C.

This self-ignition, however, is not instantaneous. The lon

ger the delay between the start of the injection and the ac

tual ignition (which depends on the chemical quality of the

diesel oil, indicated by the cetane number), the more fuel will enter the cylinder, leading to harsher combustion, with the characteristic knocking sound. Only with the careful har

monization of all aspects—beginning of injection, the distri

bution of the amount injected in time, the mixing of the fuel and air—can the combustion be kept at optimal level.

Small diesel engines suitable for cars were made possible by a modification to the basic principle, that allowed these stringent parameters to be considerably relaxed. It includes a separate swirl chamber connected to the cylinder via a restrictor orifice. The air compressed by the piston in the cylinder enters this chamber through the orifice, starting to swirl in

tensively. The fuel will then be injected into this swirl, and the starting igni

tion propels the fuel-air mixture still incompletely burned into the cylinder where it will mix with the air, continue and finish the combustion process. Using a prechamber results in smaller ignition delay, softer combustion, with less noise and physical strain on the engine parts, but introduces some loss of energy because of the current of air having to pass between the chambers. Citroën engines of this type use a tangentially connected spherical prechamber.

As diesel engine evolution continued, better simulation

and modeling techniques became available, which, to

gether with the improvements in fuel injection technology, lessened or removed the problems initially solved by the in

troduction of the prechamber. The direct injection engines of today have no prechamber, instead, the piston has a spe

cially formed swirl area embedded in its face.

Mechanical injection

Although the basic principles of fuel injection are similar to what we have already discussed for gasoline engines, there are some notable differences. First of all, diesel engines op

erate without restricting the amount of air entering the en

gine: there is no throttle, the only means of regulating the engine is to vary the amount of fuel injected.

The fuel is injected into the engine, creating a combusti

ble mixture in the same place it is going to be burned. Be

cause the forming of this mixture results in its self-combus

tion, the diesel injection system is, in essence, an ignition control system. Unlike on the gasoline engine, fuel injection and ignition cannot be separated in a diesel engine.

The complete mechanical injection system is built into a

single unit which can be divided into five individual—al

though interconnected—subsystems:

a low pressure fuel pump to deliver the fuel for the rest of the injection system;

a high pressure pump and distributor that routes the fuel to the appropriate cylinders in firing order (similar in purpose to the distributor on gasoline en

gines) and generates the high pressure needed for the injection as well;

a regulator that determines the amount of fuel to be injected in relation to the engine speed, modified by additional factors like idle speed, cold starting, full load, etc.;

an injection adjuster to compensate for the higher engine speed by advancing the start time of the injec

tion;

a fuel stop valve to cut off the fuel supply when the ignition has been switched off.

The diesel fuel is drawn—through a filter—from the tank by the low pressure pump 1 operated by the engine. A pres

sure regulating valve 2 ensures that the fuel pressure will not exceed a preset limit; when the pressure reaches this value, the valve opens and lets the fuel flow back to the pri

mary side of the pump.

The piston 6 of the high pressure part is driven through

a coupling 4 consisting of a cam disc and four cam rollers. The piston rotates together with the shaft coming from the

The Citroën Guide Fuel Injection: Diesel engines 11

engine but the coupling adds a horizontal, alternating movement as well: for each turn, the shaft and the piston 6 performs four push-pull cycles.

It is the pushing movement of this piston 6 that creates

the high pressure and sends the fuel to the injectors. The fuel, provided by the pump 1 arrives through the fuel stop electro-valve â, which is constantly open while the ignition switch is on but cuts the fuel path when it is turned off.

First, the piston 6 is pulled back by the coupling 4,

letting the fuel enter the chamber and the longitudinal bore inside the piston. As the side outlets are blocked by the regu

lator collar 5, the fuel stays inside the chamber (phase 1).

In the next phase, the piston rotates and closes the in

gress of fuel from the stop valve â. On the other side of the piston, the high pressure outlet opens but as the fuel is not yet under pressure, it will stay in the chamber.

In phase 3 the piston is energetically pushed by the cam

disc and rollers of the coupling 4, injecting the fuel stored in the chamber into the output line with a significant force.

As the piston 6 moves to the right, at some point the

side outlets will emerge from under the regulator collar 5—the fuel injection into the real output will stop imme

diately, and the rest of the fuel stored in the chamber will leave through this path of lesser resistance. This is phase 4, the end of the injection cycle.

Actually, this operation is repeated four times for each

revolution of the incoming shaft. There are four high pres

sure outlets radially around the piston, each serving a given cylinder. As the outlet slot ä of the piston turns around, it al

lows only one of the outlets to receive the fuel.

The pressure valves 7 serve to drop the pressure in the in

jector lines once the injection cycle is over. To reduce the cav

itation caused by the pressure waves generated by the rapid closing of the injector valves, a ball valve minimizing the back flow is also used.

The length of phase 3, thus the amount of fuel injected

depends on the position of the collar 5. If it is pushed to the right, it will cover the side outlets for a longer time, result

ing in a longer injection phase, and vice versa. If it stays in the leftmost position, no fuel will be injected at all.

And this is exactly what the regulator part does: it

moves this collar 5 to the left and to the right, as the actual requirements dictate. The lever 9 attached to the collar is ro

tated around its pivot by several contributing forces. The two main inputs are the position of the accelerator pedal as communicated through a regulator spring Ý and the ac

tual engine speed, driving a centrifugal device 8 via a pair of gears 3. The higher the engine speed, the more the shaft å protrudes to the right, pushing on the lever Û.

When the engine is being started, the centrifugal device

8 and the shaft å are in their neutral position. The starting lever Û—pushed into its starting position by a spring Ü— sets the position of the collar 5 to supply the amount of fuel needed for the starting.

As the engine starts to rotate, a relatively low speed will

already generate a large enough force in the centrifugal de

vice 8 to push the shaft å and overcome the force of the

engine

fuel from/to tank

low pressure

high pressure

adjusting screws

fuel pump

injection adjuster

high pressure pump and distributor

fuel stop

valve

regulator

fuel

uel

to tank

injectors

accelelator pedal

ignition

switch

idlefull

PHASE 2

PHASE 4PHASE 3

PHASE 1

injector

The Citroën Guide Fuel Injection: Diesel engines 12

rather weak spring Ü. This will rotate the lever Û, moving the collar 5 to the left, setting the amount of fuel required for idling. The accelerator pedal is in the idle position as well, dictated by the adjustment screw ß. The idle spring Þ keeps the regulator in equilibrium.

Normally, the amount of fuel will be regulated by the position of the pedal as both springs Ü and Þ are fully compressed and do not take an active part in the process. When the driver pushes on the pedal, the regulating spring Ý stretches, both le

vers 9 and Û rotate and move the collar 5 to the right, to allow the maximum amount of fuel to be in

jected. As the actual engine speed catches up, the centrif

ugal device 8 opens up, pushing the shaft å to the right, countering the previ

ous force, gradually return

ing the collar 5 towards the no fuel position, until the point is reached where the amount of fuel injected maintains the equilibrium. When the driver releases the pedal, the inverse of this process takes place. During deceleration—pedal at idle, engine rotated by the momentum of the car—the fuel is cut off completely.

Without such regulation, if enough fuel is provided to overcome the engine load, it would continue accelerating until self-destruction (this is called engine runaway). Speed regulation is a feedback mechanism comparing the actual speed of the engine to the one dictated by the gas pedal and modifies the amount of fuel as necessary. If either the engine speed changes (because of varying load, going over a hill, for instance) or the driver modifies the position of the accelerator pedal, the regulation kicks in, adding more or less fuel, until a new equilibrium is reached. If the engine is powerful enough to cope with the load, keeping the pedal in a constant position means constant cruising speed in a diesel car; gasoline vehicles need speed regulated fly-bywire systems or cruise controls to achieve the same.

The excess fuel will finally leave the pump unit through

an overflow valve ã, flowing back to the fuel tank.

Something needs to be corrected…

The chemistry involved in the combustion dictates some pa

rameters of fuel injection, the most important being the smoke limit, the maximum amount of fuel injected into a given amount of air, that results in combustion without re

sulting in soot particles. Although gasoline engines also have this limit, they normally operate with a constant fuel to air mixture that automatically places the amount of fuel below this critical limit. Diesel engines, in contrast, operate with a variable fuel to air mixture, using this very variation for power regulation. With diesel fuel observing the smoke limit is a much stricter task because once soot starts to de

velop, this changes the character of the combustion itself, resulting in a sudden and huge increase in the amount of particulates—a bit like a chain reaction.

Because the maximum amount of fuel injected depends

on how far the lever Û is allowed to rotate counter-clock

wise, the inability of the pump to inject too much fuel, thereby crossing the smoke limit, is insured by an end stop æ for this lever. This very basic means of smoke limit correc

tion, adjusted for worst case conditions, was developed fur

ther on turbocharged engines, and still further on electroni

cally controlled injection systems.

Timing is of enormous importance in a diesel engine. During the stroke of combustion, several events take place in close succession: the fuel injection system starts its deliv

ery, then the fuel is actually injected (the time elapsed between these two is the injection delay), slightly later the fuel will self-ignite (this delay is the ignition delay), then the injec

tion will stop but the combustion is still raging, first reach

ing its maximum, then dying away slowly (on the scale of milliseconds, that is).

Just like in a gasoline engine, the ignition delay remains

constant while the engine speed changes. The fuel has to ig

nite before the piston passes its TDC position, but with the increasing engine speed, the distance the piston travels dur

ing a given period of time becomes longer. Therefore, the in

jection has to be advanced in time to catch the piston still in time. The injection adjuster à feeds on the fuel pressure provided by the pump 1, proportional to the engine speed.

This will move the piston, which in turn, through the le

vers, modifies the relative position of the cam rollers to the cam disc inside the coupling 4, increasing or decreasing the phase difference between the revolutions of the engine and the rotating-alternating movement of the distributor piston 6.

Some engines also have additional minor correction

mechanisms á that modify the idle speed and timing de

pending on engine temperature, to provide better cold start performance. The engine temperature is measured in

directly, through the coolant acting on cylinder and pistonlike elements filled with paraffin. As the paraffin expands or contracts as the coolant temperature dictates, the trans

formed mechanical movement, coupled through cables to two movable end stops for both the lever 9 and the injec

tion adjuster à, modifies the idle speed and the injection timing of the engine. Because correct timing depends on temperature, the corrections, although relatively slight, in

DECREASE/INCREASE

pedal

STARTING IDLE SPEED

ÛÛ

ÜÜ

ÝÝ

pedal

ÞÞ

ßß

åå

pedal

The Citroën Guide Fuel Injection: Diesel engines 13

sure that the amount of fuel injected as well as the timing provide better combustion and lower pollution when the engine is started and operated at low temperatures. They do not have any effect once the engine reaches the normal operating temperature.

Now that the correct amount of fuel is care

fully determined and the necessary high pres

sure generated by the pump, it has to be in

jected into the swirl chamber. The pressurized fuel entering the injector through a filter 1 tries to press the piston 2 upwards but a spring 3 counters this force. As soon as the pressure exceeds the force of the spring (which can be adjusted by placing appropri

ately sized shims behind it), the piston jumps up and the fuel rushes into the swirl chamber

through the small orifice now opened. After the injection pump closes its pressure valve at the end of the injection pe

riod, the spring 3 pushes the piston 2 back, closing the ori

fice until the next injection cycle.

Each swirl chamber has its own glow plug whose only

purpose is to heat up the chamber in cold weather. They start to glow when the ignition key is turned into the first position and stay glowing for some time afterwards unless the starting was unsuccessful.

Turbo

More power requires more fuel. An efficient way to boost the performance is to provide both more air and fuel to the engine. The ex

haust gases rushing out from the engine waste a great deal of energy; a turbocharger 4 spun by the exhaust flow taps into this source of energy to pro

vide added pressure in the air inlet. Diesel engines are partic

ularly well suited for turbocharging. Gasoline engines may not have the inlet pressure raised too much because the air and fuel mixture may subsequently self-ignite when it is not supposed to, and instead of burning controllably, detonate. In a diesel such a situation is not possible because the fuel is injected only when combustion should actually happen in the first place. As a result, relatively high inlet pressures can be used, considerably improving the power output of a die

sel engine, and with proper attention to the subtleties of the design, engine efficiency and fuel consumption.

On its own, once the amount and pressure in the ex

haust manifold reaches a level high enough to power it, with the engine fully loaded, the turbine would spin propor

tionally to engine speed squared, because both the pres

sure and the volume of the air pumped into the engine are increasing.

Because the engine is required to deliver as much torque

as possible at the widest possible range of engine revolu

tion, the requirements on the turbine are somewhat contra

dictory. If the turbo is made very small and light, it will spin up very quickly due to its low mass and inertia, ensuring its full benefit already at low rpms. However, with a moderate

increase in engine speed, the rotational speed of the tur

bine (note the quadratic relationship) would become exces

sively high. When the turbine blade speed approaches the speed of sound, a supersonic wave effect occurs that can abruptly leave it without any load, at which point runaway would occur, resulting in severe damage to the turbine.

On the other hand, if the turbine was dimensioned so that even at the highest engine speed it is still operating within safe limits, it would not be useful at all in the middle range where the engine is most often used. A compromise can be achieved using an overpressure valve, the waste

gate valve 5. The turbo pressure is constantly monitored

by this valve opening above a set pressure limit, letting the exhaust escape through a bypass. This avoids turbo run

away by making the turbo rotational speed proportional to that of the engine, once the limit pressure is reached. This way the quick spin-up resulting from the quadratic relation

ship can be preserved while the turbocharging effect is ex

tended over a significant percentage of the usable engine speed range—typically the higher 70-80%. But it comes at a price: because of the simplicity of such a regulation, the limit pressure is dictated by the maximum turbine speed, which is usually calculated for maximum engine speed plus a safety margin. The maximum pressure is already reached at lower engine and turbine speeds, where the turbine could conceivably still provide more pressure because of a lesser demand for air volume. Although with a simple wastegate a certain amount of the turbocharging potential is lost, the increase in power output is still substantial.

Citroën is a pioneer in implementing variable wastegate limit pressure using a controllable wastegate valve, to tap into this previously unused turbo potential.

Essentially, a turbocharged diesel engine runs in two dif

ferent modes: atmospheric pressure or turbo-charged. The atmospheric pressure mode prevails while the exhaust gas produced is not yet sufficient to power the turbine (below a given engine speed and load). Once this limit is crossed and the turbine starts generating higher than atmospheric pres

sure, the engine is running in turbocharged mode.

The injection pump regula

tor needs to know about the changes in the inlet pressure, because those changes mean differences in the amount of air entering the engine. And this also means that the upper limit of fuel injected needs to be changed correspondingly. These injection systems are tuned for the turbo producing the rated waste pressure (also known as full boost). How

ever, the amount of fuel injected during the atmospheric mode of the engine—before the turbo kicks in—has to be reduced in order to avoid crossing the smoke limit. The turbo pressure drives a limiter in the injection pump: with the increasing pressure the piston æ moves down. Its vary

ing diameter forces the lever ç rotate around its pivot, which then acts as a stop to limit the allowed range of oper

ation of the regulator lever 9, limiting the amount of fuel to be injected.

Intercooler

pedal

turbo pressure

HP fuel

return

air

exhaust

The Citroën Guide Fuel Injection: Diesel engines 14

Towards a cleaner world

Exhaust Gas Recycling (EGR) systems were used—depend

ing on the market—as add-on units. An electronic unit mea

suring the coolant temperature and the position of the gas pedal control on the pump (with a potentiometer fitted to the top of the control lever) controls a valve which lets part of the exhaust gas get back into the inlet.

Post-glowing is also used as a pollution reducing mecha

nism. A definite post-glow phase, lasting for up to minutes is usually controlled by a combination of a timer and the en

gine coolant temperature: either the timeout of 4 minutes runs out or the engine reaches 50 °C. An additional mecha

nism prevents post-glowing if the engine was not actually started.

The Citroën Guide Fuel Injection: Diesel engines 15

Electronic Diesel Control

Just like it is the case with gasoline engines and carburetors, a mechanical device—even one as complicated as a diesel injection pump—cannot match the versatility and sensibil

ity of a microcomputer coupled with various sensors, apply

ing sophisticated rules to regulate the whole process of fuel injection.

The only input a mechanical pump can measure is the en

gine speed. The amount of air entering into the engine, un

fortunately, is far from being proportional to engine speed, and the turbo or the intercooler disturbs this relationship even further. As the injection always has to inject less fuel than the amount which would already generate smoke, the mechanical pump—capable only of a crude approximation of what is actually going on in the engine—wastes a signifi

cant amount of air, just to be of the safe side.

The satisfactory combustion in diesel engines relies on

the exhaust as well—if this is plugged up, more of the ex

haust gases stay in the cylinder, allowing less fresh air to en

ter. A mechanically controlled injection pump has no feed

back from the engine (except for the engine speed)—it will simply pump too much fuel into the engine, resulting in black smoke. An electronically controlled injection pump, on the other hand, can tell how much air has actually en

tered by using a sensor (although only the latest systems use such a sensor).

There are also other factors never considered by a me

chanical system. The details of the combustion process de

pend heavily on the chemical characteristics of the fuel. The ignition delay, as we have already seen, depends on the cetane number of the diesel oil. In spite of the fact that cor

rect timing has a paramount influence on the performance and the low pollutant level of a diesel engine, the mechani

cal system can have no information about this very impor

tant input factor. Less essential but still important is the tem

perature of the incoming air. With measuring all the circum

stances and conditions in and around the engine (air, en

gine and fuel temperatures), the injection system can achieve better characteristics, lower fuel consumption and less pollution.

All in all, the electronically controlled injection pump not only adds precision to the injection process as its gasoline counterpart does but introduces completely new methods of regulation; therefore it represents a much larger leap for

wards than fuel injection in gasoline engines. In spite of this, it is quite similar to its mechanical predecessor. From the five subparts, four remain practically the same, only the regulator is replaced with a simple electromagnetic actua

tor that changes the position of the same regulator collar 5 as in the mechanical pump, in order to regulate the amount of fuel to be injected.

The real advantage over the former, mechanical pumps

is that an electronic device, a small microcomputer can han

dle any complex relationship between the input values and the required output. With mechanical systems, only simple correction rules are possible, and as the rules get more com

plicated, the mechanics quickly becomes unfeasible. In con

trast to this, the ECU just have to store a set of characteristic curves digitized into lookup tables, describing the amount of fuel to be injected using three parameters: engine

speed (measured by a flywheel inductive magnet), cool

ant temperature (measured by a sensor protruding into

the coolant liquid), air temperature (measured by a sen

sor in the air inlet).

The newer HDi engines use an air mass sensor using a

heated platinum wire (as that mentioned on page 5). Hav

ing the exact amount of air to enter the engine, these latest EDC systems can deliver true closed loop regulation.

A potentiometer attached to the accelerator pedal

sends information about the pedal position to the com

puter. This signal is used as the main input, conveying the in

engine

fuel from/to tank

low pressure

high pressure

adjusting screws

fuel pump

injection adjuster

high pressure pump and distributor

fuel stop

valve

actuator

fuel

fuel to tank

injectors

accelelator pedal

ECU

temperatures (air, fuel, coolant)

regulator

position

vehicle speed

air quantity

engine speed atmospheric

air pressure

The Citroën Guide Fuel Injection: Diesel engines 16

tentions of the driver. The ECU uses this sensor to learn about special conditions like idle speed or full load as well.

Air temperature is measured by a sensor in the inlet mani

fold (but if the air mass is measured by a heated platinum wire sensor, this already provides the necessary air tempera

ture correction, thus there is no need for an additional sen

sor).

The ECU stores the basic engine characteristics, the intrin

sic relationship between the air intake and the engine speed (plus the manifold pressure if a turbo is fitted). The values obtained from this table are corrected according to the inputs of the various sensors, in order to arrive at a basic timing and smoke limit value. The actual amount of fuel in

jected and the accurate timing are a function of these results and the position of the accelerator pedal.

The final amount of fuel calculated will be used to con

trol the electric actuator 8 which—by moving a lever Û— changes the position of the regulating collar 5. To ensure the necessary precision, the factual position is reported back to the computer using a potentiometer.

As we have already mentioned, the exact timing of the in

jection is of utmost importance in a diesel engine. The elec

tronic system uses a needle movement sensor built into one of the injectors (the other are assumed to work com

pletely simultaneously) notifying the computer about the precise time of the beginning of the injection. Should there be any time difference between the factual and designated opening times, the electro-valve ß of the injection ad

juster à will receive a correction signal until the difference

disappears. If the electro-valve is completely open, the injec

tion start will be delayed, if it is closed, the start time will be advanced. To achieve the timing required, the valve is driven with a modulated pulse signal, with the duty cycle (on-off ratio) determined by the ECU.

The input from this sensor is also used for compensating calculations on the amount of fuel injected, and to provide the on-board computer with the exact amount of fuel used up so that it can calculate the momentary and average con

sumption.

The computer has extensive self-diagnostic functionality. Many sensors can be substituted with standard input val

ues in case of a failure (serious errors will light up the diag

nostic warning light on the dashboard). Some sensors can even be simulated using other sensors—for instance, the role of a failing engine speed sensor might be filled in by the signal generated from the needle movement sensor.

As there is no standalone ignition in a diesel engine, the

only way to stop it is to cut off the fuel supply. The mechani

cal default position of the actuator 8 is the position where no fuel enters the injectors at all; this is where it returns when the computer receives no more voltage from the bat

tery, the ignition switch having turned off.

As it has already been mentioned, the inlet pressure is

one of the principal EDC parameters for a turbocharged en

gine. Later Citroën turbocharged diesels—starting with the

2.5 TD engine of the XM—pioneered variable turbo pres

sure technology. The wastegate on these turbines has sev

eral actuators, fed with the turbo pressure through electric valves. The ECU, based on the relevant engine operation pa

rameters obtained from the sensors, controls these actua

tors in various combinations, providing a selection of two or three different wastegate limit pressures. This lets the sys

tem ease the compromise between the turbo pressure and turbine speed: the pressure is kept at the usual value for higher engine speeds (limited by the maximum turbine speed) but is allowed to go higher than that in the middle rpm ranges, adding a significant amount of torque in the range where it is most needed.

Green versus Black

Diesel oil, just like gasoline, is a mixture of various hydrocar

bons (C

nHm

), and burned together with the oxygen (O2)of

the air, transforms to carbon-dioxide (CO

) and water vapor

O). However, as the combustion is never ideal, the ex

haust gas also contains various byproduct gases: carbonmonoxide (CO), various unburned hydrocarbons (C

nHm

), ni

trogen-oxides (NO

). The relatively high lambda value a die

sel engine is operating with reduces the hydrocarbon and carbon-monoxide content to 10–15%, and the amount of nitrogen-oxides to 30–35% of the corresponding figures measured in gasoline engines without a catalytic converter. The sulphur content of the fuel—drastically reduced during the recent decades—is responsible for the emission of sul

phur-dioxide (SO

) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4).

Conversely, these engines emit 10–20 times more par

ticulates—or black soot—than gasoline engines. These are unburned or incompletely burned hydrocarbons attached to large particles of carbon. These substances are mainly al

dehydes and aromatic hydrocarbons; while the first only smells bad, the second is highly carcinogenic.

The much higher amount of particulates is due to the dif

ferent combustion process. The various aspects of mixture formation, ignition and burning occur simultaneously, they are not independent but influence each other. The distribu

tion of fuel is not homogenous inside the cylinder, in zones where the fuel is richer the combustion only takes place near the outer perimeter of the tiny fuel droplets, produc

ing elemental carbon. If this carbon will not be burned later because of insufficient mixing, local oxygen shortage (large fuel droplets due to insufficient fuel atomization, caused by worn injectors) or the combustion stopping in cooler zones inside the cylinder, it will appear as soot in the exhaust. The diameter of these small particles is between 0.01 and 10 mm, the majority being under 1 mm. Keeping the amount of fuel injected below the smoke limit—the lambda value where the particulate generation starts to rise extremely—is essential.

Similarly to gasoline engines, the exhaust gas can be

post-processed to reduce the amount of pollutants even fur

ther. There are two different devices that can be used:

Soot burning filter: as the diesel engine always oper

ates with excess air (its lambda is above 1), there is enough oxygen in the exhaust gas to simply burn the car

bon soot present. The burning filter is manufactured from ceramic materials that can withstand the resulting high temperatures (up to 1200 °C). As the diesel engine is very sensitive to excessive back pressure, the filter has to be able to self-regenerate. This is solved by the addi

tion of organic metal substances.

Catalytic converter, identical to the simpler ones used on gasoline engines before the proliferation of threeway, controlled converters. It reduces the carbon-monox

ide and hydrocarbon content of the exhaust gas.

The Citroën Guide Fuel Injection: Diesel engines 17

Diesel Direct Injection

I think that at this point, soot burning filters will have to be cut out of the PDF and put in at a similar ecological section under DI/HDI—since that is the only system that actually makes soot burning practical, and the only system that im

plements it.

Soot burning was experimented with a lot but was never

made practical before HDI due to a too low exhaust temper

ature. The particle filter would need heating to a very high temperature and that was deemed to be too dangerous. Even with cerine additives, essentially, there would have to be a separate small burner to heat up the filter, which is again another system that can go wrong. HDI essentially in

tegrates a burner by alowing post-injection, something that is simply impossible for injection systems derived from a classical pump due to teh timing required. I think that for soot management it is enough to write that the smoke limit control is vastly improved by the better regulation of the EDC.

Other things like controlled swirl and multi-valve technol

ogy, also pioneered by Citroën (XM 2.1 TD!) should be men

tioned. The catalytic converter section remains unchanged.

And, of course, there should be an "In addition to the pol

lution management implemented on mechanical injection systems" sentence somewhere in there, since proper cold start corrections and EGR are implemented in EDC units by default.

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