STM32 microcontrollers embed advanced 12-bit or 16-bit ADCs (depending on the device).
A self-calibration feature is provided to enhance ADC accuracy versus environmental
condition changes.
In applications involving analog-to-digital conversion, ADC accuracy has an impact on the
overall system quality and efficiency. To improve this accuracy, the errors associated with
the ADC and the parameters affecting them must be understood.
ADC accuracy does not only depend on ADC performance and features, but also on the
overall application design around the ADC.
This application note aim is to help understand ADC errors and explain how to enhance
ADC accuracy. It is divided into three main parts:
• a simplified description of ADC internal structure to help understand ADC operation and
related ADC parameters
• explanations of the different types and sources of ADC errors related to the ADC design
and to external ADC parameters such as the external hardware design
• recommendations on how to minimize these errors, focusing on hardware and software
methods
The ADC embedded in STM32 microcontrollers uses the SAR (successive approximation
register) principle, by which the conversion is performed in several steps. The number of
conversion steps is equal to the number of bits in the ADC converter. Each step is driven by
the ADC clock. Each ADC clock produces one bit from result to output. The ADC internal
design is based on the switched-capacitor technique.
The following figures (Figure 1 to Figure 6) explain the principle of ADC operation. The
example given below shows only the first steps
till the LSB is reached.
Figure 1. Basic schematic of SAR switched-capacitor ADC (example of 10-bit ADC)
®(a)
-based microcontrollers.
of approximation but the process continues
1. Basic ADC schematic with digital output.
a. Arm is a registered trademark of Arm Limited (or its subsidiaries) in the US and/or elsewhere.
6/58AN2834 Rev 6
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AN2834ADC internal principle
ai17098b
S1
Sb
CLK
DQ
CLR
PR
A
S2
Sa
VIN
ADC Data
ADC Clk
S3S4S5S6S7S8S9
CC/2C/4C/8C/16C/32C/64C/128 C/256
VREF
S10S11
C/512 C/512
A
2C
VCOMP= 0
Equivalent circuit:
VIN
ai17099b
S1
Sb
CLK
DQ
CLR
PR
A
S2
Sa
VIN
ADC Data
ADC Clk
S3S4S5S6S7S8S9
CC/2C/4C/8C/16C/32C/64C/128 C/256
VREF
S10S11
C/512 C/512
Equivalent circuit:
A
2C
VCOMP= –VIN
Figure 2. Sample state
1. Sample state: capacitors are charging to VIN voltage. Sa switched to VIN, Sb switch closed during sampling
time.
Figure 3. Hold state
1. Hold state: the input is disconnected, capacitors hold input voltage. Sb switch is open, then S1-S11
switched to ground and Sa switched to V
REF
.
AN2834 Rev 67/58
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ADC internal principleAN2834
ai17800b
S1
Sb
CLK
DQ
CLR
PR
A
S2
Sa
VIN
ADC Data
ADC Clk
S3S4S5S6S7S8S9
CC/2C/4C/8C/16C/32C/64C/128 C/256
VREF
S10S11
C/512 C/512
Equivalent circuit:
A
C
C
VREF
VCOMP= –VIN+ VREF/2
ai17801b
S1
Sb
CLK
DQ
CLR
PR
A
S2
Sa
VIN
ADC Data
ADC Clk
S3S4S5S6S7S8S9
CC/2C/4C/8C/16C/32C/64C/128 C/256
VREF
S10S11
C/512 C/512
Equivalent circuit:
A
3C/2
C/2
VREF
VCOMP= –VIN+ 1/4 VREF
Figure 4. Step 1: Compare with V
1. First approximation step. S1 switched to V
Figure 5. Step 2: If MSB = 0, then compare with ¼V
REF
/2
REF
.
REF
1. Compare with ¼V
8/58AN2834 Rev 6
; if MSB =1. S1 switched back to ground. S2 switched to V
REF
REF
.
Page 9
AN2834ADC internal principle
ai17802b
S1
Sb
CLK
DQ
CLR
PR
A
S2
Sa
VIN
ADC Data
ADC Clk
S3S4S5S6S7S8S9
CC/2C/4C/8C/16C/32C/64C/128 C/256
VREF
S10S11
C/512 C/512
Equivalent circuit:
A
C/2
3C/2
VREF
VCOMP= –VIN+ 3/4VREF
1. Compare with ¾V
Figure 6. Step 2: If MSB = 1, then compare with ¾V
; if MSB =0. S1 remained switched to ground. S2 switched to V
REF
REF
REF
.
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ADC errorsAN2834
3 ADC errors
This section lists the main errors that have an effect on A/D conversion accuracy. These
types of errors occur in all A/D converters and conversion quality depends on their
elimination. These error values are specified in the ADC characteristics section of STM32
microcontroller datasheets.
Different accuracy error types are specified for the STM32 ADC. For easy reference,
accuracy errors are expressed as multiples of 1
depends on the reference voltage. The error in terms of voltage is calculated by multiplying
the number of LSBs by the voltage corresponding to 1
V
/212).
DDA
3.1 Errors due to the ADC itself
3.1.1 Offset error
The offset error is the deviation between the first actual transition and the first ideal
transition. The first transition occurs when the digital ADC output changes from 0 to 1.
Ideally, when the analog input ranges between 0.5
should be 1. Still ideally, the first transition occurs at 0.5
E
. The offset error can easily be calibrated by the application firmware.
O
LSB. The resolution in terms of voltage
LSB (1 LSB = V
REF+
/212 or
LSB and 1.5 LSB, the digital output
LSB. The offset error is denoted by
Example
For the STM32 ADC, the smallest detectable incremental change in voltage is expressed in
terms of LSBs:
1 LSB = V
If V
= 3.3 V, the input of 402.8 µV (0.5 LSB = 0.5 × 805.6 µV) should ideally lead to the
REF+
generation of a digital output of 1. In practice, however, the ADC may still provide a reading
of 0. If a digital output of 1 is obtained from an analog input of 550
Offset error = Actual transition – Ideal transition
E
= 550 µV – 402.8 µV = 141.2 µV
O
E
= 141.2 µV / 805.6 µV = 0.17 LSB
O
When an analog input voltage greater than 0.5 LSB generates the first transition, the offset
error is positive (refer to
/4096 (on some packages, V
REF+
Figure 7 for an example of positive offset error).
REF+
= V
DDA
).
µV, th en:
10/58AN2834 Rev 6
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AN2834ADC errors
ai15475b
Digital output
V
AIN
Ideal transfer curve
Actual transfer curve
0.5LSB
E
O
> 0
0
1
2
ai15476b
Digital output
Ideal transfer curve
Actual transfer curve
0.5LSB
E
O
> 0
0
1
2
V
AIN
Figure 7. Positive offset error representation
1. The error offset, EO, is shown in magenta.
When an analog input voltage of less than 0.5 LSB generates the first transition, the offset
error is negative (refer to
Figure 8 for an example of negative offset error).
If the analog input voltage (V
) is equal to V
AIN
and the ADC generates a non-zero digital
SSA
output, the offset error is negative. This means that a negative voltage generates the first
transition.
Figure 8. Negative offset error representation
1. The error offset, EO, is shown in magenta.
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ADC errorsAN2834
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Digital output
Ideal transfer curve
Actual transfer curve
E
G
> 0
4095
4094.5
LSB
V
AIN
3.1.2 Gain error
The gain error is the deviation between the last actual transition and the last ideal transition.
It is denoted by E
The last actual transition is the transition from 0xFFE to 0xFFF. Ideally, there should be a
transition from 0xFFE to 0xFFF when the analog input is equal to V
V
= 3.3 V, the last ideal transition should occur at 3.299597 V.
REF+
If the ADC provides the 0xFFF reading for V
error is obtained.
Example
The gain error is obtained by the formula below:
EG = Last actual transition – ideal transition
.
G
– 0.5 LSB. So for
REF+
AIN
< V
– 0.5 LSB, then a negative gain
REF+
If V
= 3.3 V and V
REF+
= 3.298435 V generate a transition from 0xFFE to 0xFFF then:
AIN
EG = 3.298435 V – 3.299597 V
E
= –1162 µV
G
E
= (–1162 µV / 805.6 V) LSB = –1.44 LSB
G
If a full scale reading (0xFFF) is not obtained for V
positive. This means that a voltage greater than V
equal to V
AIN
will cause the last transition. Figure 9
REF+
, the gain error is
REF+
shows a positive gain error while Figure 10 shows a a negative gain error.
Figure 9. Positive gain error representation
1. The gain error, EG, is shown in magenta.
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V
AIN
Digital output
Ideal transfer curve
Actual transfer curve
E
G
< 0
4095
4094.5
LSB
Figure 10. Negative gain error representation
1. The gain error, EG, is shown in magenta.
3.1.3 Differential linearity error
The differential linearity error (DLE) is the maximum deviation between the actual and ideal
steps. Here ‘ideal’ does not refer to the ideal transfer curve but to the ADC resolution. The
DLE is denoted by E
ED = Actual step width – 1 LSB
. It is represented in Figure 11 .
D
Ideally, an analog input voltage change of 1 LSB should cause a change in the digital code.
If an analog input voltage greater than 1
LSB is required for a change in digital code, a
differential linearity error is observed. The DLE therefore corresponds to the maximum
additional voltage that is required to change from one digital code to the next.
The DLE is also known as the differential non-linearity (DNL) error.
Example
A given digital output should correspond to an analog input range. Ideally, the step width
should be 1
voltage range of 1.9998
ED is thus the voltage difference between the higher (2.0014 V) and the lower (1.9998 V)
analog voltages minus the voltage corresponding to 1
LSB. Let us assume that the digital output is the same over an analog input
1. The differential linearity error, ED, is shown in magenta.
If V
= 3.3 V, an analog input of 1.9998 V (0x9B1) can provide results varying between
REF+
0x9B0 and 0x9B2. Similarly, for an input of 2.0014
0x9B2 and 0x9B4.
As a result, the total voltage variation corresponding to the 0x9B2 step is:
0x9B3 – 0x9B1, that is, 2.0014 V – 1.9998 V = 1.6 mV (1660 µV)
E
= 1660 µV – 805.6 µV
D
E
= 854.4 µV
D
E
= (854.4 µV/805.6 µV) LSB
D
E
= 1.06 LSB
D
3.1.4 Integral linearity error
The integral linearity error is the maximum deviation between any actual transition and the
endpoint correlation line. The ILE is denoted by E
The endpoint correlation line can be defined as the line on the A/D transfer curve that
connects the first actual transition with the last actual transition. E
line for each transition. The endpoint correlation line thus corresponds to the actual transfer
curve and has no relation to the ideal transfer curve.
The ILE is also known as the integral non linearity error (INL). The ILE is the integral of the
DLE over the whole range.
V (0x9B3), the results may vary between
. It is represented in Figure 12.
L
is the deviation from this
L
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AN2834ADC errors
ai15480b
Digital output
Actual transfer curve
E
L
4095
550 • •V
3.298435 V
2
1
0
V
AIN
Figure 12. Integral linearity error representation
1. The integral linearity error, EL, is shown in magenta.
Example
If the first transition from 0 to 1 occurs at 550 µV and the last transition (0xFFE to 0xFFF)
occurs at 3.298435
actual digital codes 0x1 and 0xFFF is the endpoint correlation line.
V (gain error), then the line on the transfer curve that connects the
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ADC errorsAN2834
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Digital output
Ideal transfer curve
Actual transfer curve
E
T
V
AIN
3.1.5 Total unadjusted error
The total unadjusted error (TUE) is the maximum deviation between the actual and the ideal
transfer curves. This parameter specifies the total errors that may occur, thus causing the
maximum deviation between the ideal digital output and the actual digital output. TUE is the
maximum deviation recorded between the ideal expected value and the actual value
obtained from the ADC for any input voltage.
The TUE is denoted by ET. It is represented in Figure 13.
The TUE is not the sum of EO, EG, EL, ED. The offset error affects the digital result at lower
voltages whereas the gain error affects the digital output for higher voltages.
Example
If V
= 3.3 V and V
REF+
= 2 V, the ideal result is 0x9B2.
AIN
TUE = absolute (actual value – ideal case value) = 0x9B4 – 0x9B2 = 0x2 = 2 LSB
Figure 13. Total unadjusted error
1. The total unadjusted error, ET, is shown in magenta.
16/58AN2834 Rev 6
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AN2834ADC errors
Digital code
V
AIN
2N1–()
V
REF+
----------------------------------=
Digital
output
12121–()×
3.3
----------------------------------0x4D9==
Digital
output
12121–()×
3.292
----------------------------------0x4DC==
3.2 Errors due to the ADC environment
3.2.1 Reference voltage noise
As the ADC output is the ratio between the analog signal voltage and the reference voltage,
any noise on the analog reference causes a change in the converted digital value. V
analog power supply is used on some packages as the reference voltage (V
quality of V
For example, with an analog reference of 3.3 V (V
power supply has influence on ADC error.
DDA
REF+
= V
) and a 1 V signal input, the
DDA
REF+
), so the
converted result is:
(1/3.3) × 4095 = 0x4D9
However, with a 40 mV peak-to-peak ripple in the analog reference, the converted value
be
comes:
(1/3.34) × 4095 = 0x4CA (with V
at its peak).
REF+
Error = 0x4D9 – 0x4CA = 15 LSB
DDA
The SMPS (switch-mode power supply) usually
embeds internal fast-switching power
transistors. This introduces high-frequency noise in the output. The switching noise is in the
range of 15 kHz to 1 MHz.
3.2.2 Reference voltage / power supply regulation
Power supply regulation is very important for ADC accuracy since the conversion result is
the ratio of the analog input voltage to the V
If the power supply output decreases when connected to V
these inputs and to its output impedance, an error will be introduced in the conversion result.
, where N is the resolution of the ADC (in our case N = 12).
If the reference voltage changes, the digital result changes too.
For example:
If the supply used is a reference voltage of 3.3 V and V
REF+
value.
AIN
DDA
or V
due to the loads on
REF+
= 1 V, the digital output is:
If the voltage supply provides a voltage equal to 3.292 V (after its output connection to
V
REF+
The error introduced by the voltage drop is: 0x4DC – 0x4D9 = 3 LSB.
), then:
AN2834 Rev 617/58
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ADC errorsAN2834
3.2.3 Reference voltage decoupling and impedance
The reference voltage source must have a low output impedance to provide a nominal
voltage under various load conditions. Both resistive and inductive parts of the output
impedance are important. During the ADC conversion, the reference voltage is connected to
the switched capacitor network (see
are charged/discharged from/to a reference voltage in a very short time during successive
approximations (one approximation cycle corresponding to one ADC clock period). The
reference voltage must provide high current peaks to capacitors. Voltages on capacitors
must be stable at the end of each approximation cycle (zero current from the reference
voltage). Therefore, the reference voltage must have a very low output impedance including
low inductance (to provide high current peaks in a very short time). Parasitic inductance can
prevent the charging process from being fully finished at the end of the approximation cycle
or oscillations can appear in the LC circuit (parasitic inductance together with capacitor
network). In this case, the result of the approximation cycle is inaccurate. Correct
decoupling capacitors on the reference voltage located very close to pins provide a low
source impedance.
Figure 4. and Figure 5.). The capacitors of this network
3.2.4 External reference voltage parameters
In case of usage external source for reference voltage (on V
parameters of this external reference source. Three reference voltage specifications must
be considered: temperature drift, voltage noise, long term stability.
pin) there are important
REF+
3.2.5 Analog input signal noise
Small but high-frequency signal variation can result in big conversion errors during sampling
time. This noise is generated by electrical devices, such as motors, engine ignition, power
lines. It affects the source signal (such as sensors) by adding an unwanted signal. As a
consequence, the ADC conversion results are not accurate.
3.2.6 ADC dynamic range bad match for maximum input signal amplitude
To obtain the maximum ADC conversion precision, it is very important that the ADC dynamic
range matches the maximum amplitude of the signal to be converted. Let us assume that
the signal to be converted varies between 0
The maximum signal value converted by the ADC is 3102 (2.5
this case, there are 993 unused transitions (4095 – 3102 = 993). This implies a loss in the
converted signal accuracy.
See Section 4.2.5: Matching the ADC dynamic range to the maximum signal amplitude on
page 27 for details on how to make the ADC dynamic range match the maximum input
signal amplitude.
V and 2.5 V and that V
V) as shown in Figure 14. In
is equal to 3.3 V.
REF+
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AN2834ADC errors
ai15499b
2.5 V(0x3102)
VREF+ = 3.3 V(0x4095)
t
V
unused ADC transition range
Figure 14. Input signal amplitude vs. ADC dynamic range
3.2.7 Effect of the analog signal source resistance
The impedance of the analog signal source, or series resistance (R
), between the source
AIN
and pin, causes a voltage drop across it because of the current flowing into the pin. The
charging of the internal sampling capacitor (C
resistance R
ADC
.
With the addition of source resistance (with R
capacitor increases.
Figure 15 shows the analog signal source resistance effect.
) is controlled by switches with a
ADC
), the time required to fully charge the hold
ADC
AN2834 Rev 619/58
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ADC errorsAN2834
ai15482b
STM32
R
ADC
AIN
X
V
AIN
t
12-bit ADC
R
AIN
C
ADC
V
SSA
V
C
V
C
t
C
V
AIN
The effective charging of C
becomes t
charge the C
= (R
c
ADC+RAIN
through R
ADC
less than the actual value.
Figure 15. Analog signal source resistance effect
is governed by R
ADC
) × C
ADC
. If the sampling time is less than the time required to fully
ADC
+ R
AIN
ADC
+ R
, so the charging time constant
AIN
(ts < tc), the digital value converted by the ADC is
1. tc is the time taken by the C
V
: capacitor (C
c
tc = (R
ADC
+ R
AIN
ADC
) voltage
) × C
ADC
capacitor to fully charge: Vc = V
ADC
(with max.1/2 LSB error)
AIN
3.2.8 Effect of source capacitance and parasitic capacitance of the PCB
When converting analog signals, it is necessary to account for the capacitance at the source
and the parasitic capacitance seen on the analog input pin (refer to
resistance and capacitance form an RC network. In addition, the ADC conversion results
may not be accurate unless the external capacitor (C
the input voltage. The greater value of (C
+ Cp), the more limited the source frequency.
AIN
+ Cp) is fully charged to the level of
AIN
The external capacitance at the source and the parasitic capacitance are denoted by C
and C
, respectively.
p
Figure 16). The source
AIN
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AN2834ADC errors
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STM32
Source
AIN
X
V
AIN
R
AIN
C
AIN
C
P
ai15484
STM32
Injection
current
leakage
current
AIN
0
V
AIN0RAIN0
V
AIN
< V
SS
V
SSA
AIN
1
Figure 16. Analog input with R
3.2.9 Injection current effect
A negative injection current on any analog pin (or a closely positioned digital input pin) may
introduce leakage current into the ADC input. The worst case is the adjacent analog
channel. A negative injection current is introduced when V
out from the I/O pin. This is illustrated in
Figure 17. Effect of injection current
Figure 17.
AIN
, C
and C
AIN
< VSS, causing current to flow
AIN
p
3.2.10 Temperature influence
The temperature has a major influence on ADC accuracy. Mainly it leads to two major
errors: offset error drift and gain error drift. Those errors can be compensated in the
microcontroller firmware (refer to
Section 4.2.9 for the temperature-compensation methods).
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ADC errorsAN2834
ai15485
Analog
in
Digital
I/O
Case 1Case 2
Analog
in
Digital
I/O
STM32STM32
ai15486
STM32
Electromagnetic
noise
I/O
coupled
noise
Noise induced
from PCB tracks
Internal
noise
ADC
3.2.11 I/O pin crosstalk
Switching the I/Os may induce some noise in the analog input of the ADC due to capacitive
coupling between I/Os. Crosstalk may be introduced by PCB tracks that run close to each
other or that cross each other.
Internally switching digital signals and I/Os introduces high-frequency noise. Switching highsink I/Os may induce some voltage dips in the power supply caused by current surges. A
digital track that crosses an analog input track on the PCB may affect the analog signal (see
Figure 18).
Figure 18. Crosstalk between I/O pins
1. Case 1: Digital and analog signal tracks that pass close to each other.
2. Case 2: Digital and analog signal tracks that cross each other on a different PCB side.
3.2.12 EMI-induced noise
Electromagnetic emissions from neighboring circuits may introduce high-frequency noise in
an analog signal because the PCB tracks may act like an antenna (See
Figure 19.).
Figure 19. EMI sources
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AN2834How to get the best ADC accuracy
4 How to get the best ADC accuracy
4.1 Reduce the effects of ADC-related ADC errors
The TUE is not the sum of all the EO, EG, EL, ED errors. It is the maximum deviation that can
occur between the ideal and actual digital values. It can result from one or more errors
occurring simultaneously.
As the ILE is the integral of the DLE, it can be considered as the indicator of the maximum
error. Do not add the DLE and ILE together to calculate the maximum error that may occur
at any digital step.
The maximum error values specified in the device datasheet are the worst error values
measured in laboratory test environment over the given voltage and temperature range
(refer to the device datasheet).
The ILE and DLE are dependent on the ADC design. It is difficult to calibrate them. They
can be calibrated by the measured ADC curve stored in the microcontroller memory but this
needs calibration of each individual device in final application.
Offset and gain errors can be easily compensated using the STM32 ADC self-calibration
feature or by microcontroller firmware.
4.2 Minimize ADC errors related to external environment of ADC
4.2.1 Reference voltage / Power supply noise minimization
Power supply side
Linear regulators have a better output in terms of noise. The mains must be stepped down,
rectified and filtered, then fed to linear regulators. It is highly recommended to connect the
filter capacitors to the rectifier output. Please refer to the datasheet of the used linear
regulator.
If you are using a switching power supply, it is recommended to have a linear regulator to
supply the analog stage.
It is recommended to connect capacitors with good high-frequency characteristics between
the power and ground lines. That is, a 0.1
close to the power source.
The capacitors allow the AC signals to pass through them. The small-value capacitors filter
high-frequency noise and the high-value capacitors filter low-frequency noise. Ceramic
capacitors are generally available in small values (1
ratings (16
V
SS
tracks. Small capacitors can react fast to current surges and discharge quickly for fastcurrent requirements.
Tantalum capacitors can also be used along with ceramic capacitors. To filter low-frequency
noise, you can use high-value capacitors (10
It is recommended to put them near the power source.
V to 50 V). It is recommended to place them close to the main supply (VDD and
) and analog supply (V
DDA
and V
µF and a 1 to 10 µF capacitor should be placed
pF to 0.1 µF) and with small voltage
) pins. They filter the noise induced in the PCB
SSA
µF to 100 µF), which are generally electrolytic.
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How to get the best ADC accuracyAN2834
ai15487b
1 μF // 10 nF
1 μF // 10 nF
1 μF // 10 nF
V
DDA
V
REF+
V
REF–
V
SSA
VREF+ not connected to VDDAVREF+ connected to VDDA
V
DDA
V
REF+
V
REF–
V
SSA
To filter high-frequency noise, a ferrite inductance in series with the power supply can be
used. This solution leads to very low (negligible) DC loss unless the current is high because
the series resistance of the wire is very low. At high frequencies, however, the impedance is
high.
The inductance must be small enough not to limit high current peak requirements from the
supply pins. The inductance together with the decoupling capacitor is a LC circuit which can
start to oscillate if there is a fast voltage drop on the decoupling capacitor, caused by a
change of consumption (on V
influence the ADC measurement (oscillations on V
DDA
, VDD, V
). The oscillations can take more time and
REF+
during conversion). To suppress
REF+
these oscillations, it is recommended to use small inductances and with ferrite cores which
have losses at high frequencies (resistive character of the impedance).
STM32 microcontroller side
In most STM32 microcontrollers, the VDD and VSS pins are placed close to each other. So
are the V
microcontroller with very short leads. For multiple V
decoupling capacitors.
REF+
and V
pins. A capacitor can therefore be connected very close to the
SSA
and VSS pins, use separate
DD
The V
1
µF Tantalum or Ceramic). Refer to Figure 20 and Figure 21 for decoupling examples.
pin must be connected to two external decoupling capacitors (10 nF Ceramic +
DDA
For STM32 microcontrollers delivered in 100/144-pin packages, it is possible to improve the
accuracy on low-voltage inputs by connecting a separate external ADC reference voltage
input on V
V
. If a separate, external reference voltage is applied on V
DDA
capacitors must be connected on this pin. In all cases, V
and V
DDA
(refer to Section 4.2.5). The voltage on V
REF+
.
may range from 2.4 V to
REF+
REF+
, two 10 nF and 1 µF
REF+
must be kept between 2.4 V
Figure 20. Power supply and reference decoupling for 100- and 144-pin packages
24/58AN2834 Rev 6
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AN2834How to get the best ADC accuracy
1 μF // 10 nF
V
DDA
V
SSA
ai15488
Figure 21. Power supply decoupling for 36-, 48- and 64-pin packages
4.2.2 Reference voltage / Power-supply regulation
The power supply should have good line and load regulation since the ADC uses V
V
as the analog reference and the digital value is the ratio of the analog input signal to
DDA
this voltage reference. V
must thus remain stable at different loads.
REF+
Whenever the load is increased by switching on a part of the circuit, the increase in current
must not cause the voltage to decrease. If the voltage remains stable over a wide current
range, the power supply has good load regulation.
For example, for the LD1086D2M33 voltage regulator, the line regulation is 0.035% typical
when V
when I
varies from 2.8 V to 16.5 V (when I
IN
varies from 0 to 1.5 A (please refer to the LD1086 Series datasheet for details).
load
load
The lower the line regulation value, the better the regulation. Similarly, the lower the load
regulation value, the better the regulation and the stability of the voltage output.
It is also possible to use a reference voltage for V
voltage reference diode of 2.5
V (refer to LM236 datasheet for more details).
The reference voltage source design must provide a low output impedance (static and
dynamic). The parasitic serial resistance and inductance must be minimized. Correct
decoupling capacitors on the reference voltage located very close to pins provide a low
reference voltage source impedance.
4.2.3 Analog-input signal noise elimination
Averaging method
or
REF+
= 10 mA), and the load regulation is 0.2%
, for instance the LM236, which is a
REF+
Averaging is a simple technique where you sample an analog input several times and take
the average of the results by software. This technique is helpful to eliminate the effect of
noise on the analog input in case of an analog voltage that does not change often.
The average has to be made on several readings that all correspond to the same analog
input voltage. Make sure that the analog input remains at the same voltage during the time
period when the conversions are done, otherwise you will add up digital values
corresponding to different analog inputs, and you will introduce errors.
In the STM32 microcontrollers with the ADC oversampling feature, the ADC hardware
oversampling feature can be used for averaging. This feature simply performs the sum of a
given number of ADC raw samples into one final sample. This final sample can then be right
shifted to reduce the bit width caused by multiple ADC samples accumulation. All these
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How to get the best ADC accuracyAN2834
operations (accumulation and right-bit shifting) are performed by hardware. The ADC
hardware oversampling feature can be configured to process up to 1024 input samples
(depending on devices).
Adding an external filter
Adding an external RC filter eliminates the high frequency. An expensive filter is not needed
to deal with a signal that has frequency components above the frequency range of interest.
In this case, a relatively simple low-pass filter with a cutoff frequency f
just above the
C
frequency range of interest will suffice to limit noise and aliasing. A sampling rate consistent
with the highest frequency of interest will suffice, typically two to five times f
.
C
Note:The R and C that form the external filter should have values that match the conditions
described in
Section 4.2.4 and Section 4.2.8.
4.2.4 Adding white noise or triangular sweep to improve resolution
This method combines hardware and software techniques to improve precision. From a
software point of view, this method uses averaging (oversampling) and from a hardware
point of view, it uses signal modification/spreading/dithering.
Averaging can be used in cases where the input signal is noisy (some signal change is
necessary in order to be able to calculate an average) and the requirement is to obtain the
mean value of a signal. A problem appears when the input signal is a very stable voltage
without noise. In this case, when the input signal is measured, each data sample is the
same. This is because the input signal level is somewhere between two ADC word levels
(e.g. between 0x14A and 0x14B). Therefore it is not possible to determine the input voltage
level more precisely (e.g. if the level is near to 0x14A or near to 0x14B level).
The solution is to add noise or some signal change (with uniform signal distribution e.g.
triangular sweep) to the input signal which pushes its level across 1-bit ADC level (so that
the signal level changes below 0x14A and above 0x14B level). This causes the ADC results
to vary. Applying software averaging to the different ADC results, produces the mean value
of the original input signal. Some STM32 microcontrollers support hardware oversampling,
which can be used instead of software oversampling.
As an example, this method can be implemented by using a triangular generator with RC
coupling to the input signal (white noise generation is more complicated). Care must be
taken not to modify the mean value of the original input signal (so, capacitive coupling must
be used).
A very simple implementation of the quasi-triangular source which is generated directly by
the STM32 microcontroller is on
Figure 22.
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ai17803b
C
R
2
V
IN
MCU
OUT
t
t
U
IN
V
IN
R
1
V
DD
AIN
U
OUT
Figure 22. Simple quasi-triangular source using a microcontroller output
4.2.5 Matching the ADC dynamic range to the maximum signal amplitude
This method improves accuracy by a proper selection of the reference voltage or by using a
preamplifier stage to obtain the maximum possible resolution using the full ADC output
range.
Selecting a reference voltage (method for devices delivered in packages with
a dedicated V
The reference voltage is selected in the expected range of the signal to be measured. If the
measured signal has an offset, then the reference voltage should also have a similar offset.
If the measured signal has a defined maximum amplitude, then the reference voltage must
also have a similar maximum value. By matching this reference voltage to the measurement
signal range, we obtain the maximum possible resolution using the full ADC output range.
In STM32 microcontrollers delivered in packages with a dedicated V
reference voltage is connected to the external V
ground. This makes it possible to match the reference voltage and the measured signal
range.
For example, if the measured signal varies between 0 V and 2.5 V, it is recommended to
choose a V
datasheet for more details).
Note:The voltage on V
REF+
pin)
REF+
pin, the ADC
REF+
pins that must be tied to
REF+
and V
REF-
of 2.5 V, possibly using a reference voltage like LM235 (see LM235
Figure 23 illustrates these conditions.
may range between 2.4 V and V
REF+
DDA
.
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ai15600b
t
t
Digital
Output
4095
2.5
-------------
=Digital
Output
4095
3.3
-------------
x V
IN
=
2.5 V
(0x3102)
V
REF+
= 3.3 V
(0x4095)
V
unused ADC
transition range
V
REF+
= 2.5 V
(0x4095)
V
Change V
REF+
value from
3.3 V to 2.5 V
x V
IN
ai15601b
t
t
Digital
Output
4095 x G
3
=
Digital
Output
4095
3
-------------
=
1 V
(0x1365)
V
DDA
= 3 V
(0x4095)
V
Input signal max
value is 3 V
(0x4095)
V
G = 3
Before amplificationAfter amplification
unused ADC
transition range
x V
IN
x V
IN
Figure 23. Selecting the reference voltage
Using a preamplifier
If the measured signal is too small (in comparison with the ADC range), then an external
preamplifier can be useful. This method can be implemented whatever the STM32 package,
and more specifically in packages that do not have a V
For example, if the measured signal varies between 0 V to 1 V and V
signal can be amplified so that its peak-to-peak amplitude is similar to the V
gain is then equal to 3 (see
Figure 24 for an example).
REF+
input.
is set to 3 V, the
DDA
value. The
DDA
This amplifier can adapt the input signal range to the ADC range. It can also insert offsets
between the input signal and the ADC input. When designing the preamplifier, care must be
taken not to generate additional errors (such as additional offset, amplifier gain stability or
linearity, frequency response).
The SAR ADC sample conversion process consists in two successive operations: sampling
and bit conversion. When these operations are complete, the sample conversion result is
available in the ADC data register (ADC_DR). When the ADC conversion has started, the
new converted data is available after a sample conversion time of T
acquisition is performed, a new data is available every T
and it can be converted into
CONV
the ADC sampling rate. The number of samples obtained in one second can be computed
using the following formula:
Figure 25. SAR ADC sample conversion process
. When continuous
CONV
The following paragraph describes the two successive operations required for sample
nversion:
co
1.Sampling
This operation samples the analog input signal by charging the internal ADC sampling
citor (C
capa
The duration of this operation is T
ADC
).
. It depends on the SMP parameter that is
SMPL
configured in the ADC configuration register to select the sampling time duration.
2. Bit conversion
This operation converts the analog value stored in the C
sampling capacitor to a
ADC
digital value.
The duration of this operation is T
. It depends on the RES parameter that is
SAR
configured in ADC configuration register to select the ADC bit resolution.
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How to get the best ADC accuracyAN2834
T
CONVTSMPLTSAR
+2.5 T
ADC_CLK
×12.5 T
ADC_CLK
×+15 T
ADC_CLK
×
15 1 F
ADC_CLK
⁄×15 20 ns×300 ns
===
===
ADC sample rate1 T
CONV
⁄3.336 samples per second or 3.33 MSPS==
Both T
•T
SMPL
SMPL
and T
SAR
duration:
durations are relative to multiple of ADC clock cycles:
This duration depends on the SMP parameter (ADC sampling duration). As an
example, SMP values for STM32L5 Series can be 2.5, 6.5, 12.5, 24.5, 47.5, 92.5,
247.5 or 640.5 ADC clock cycles.
SAR
duration:
•T
This duration depends on the RES parameter (ADC bit resolution). As an example,
RES values for STM32L5 Series can be 6.5, 8.5, 10.5 and 12.5 ADC clock cycles for 6,
8, 10 and 12-bit resolution.
The ADC sampling rate or sample conversion time (T
) can be calculated using the
CONV
following formula:
where
F
ADC_CLK
T
SMPL
T
SAR
= 50 MHz
= 2.5 clock cycles
= 12.5 (ADC 12-bit resolution):
SAR ADC sampling T
T
and T
SMPL
environment. T
resolution (6, 8, 10 or 12 bits). T
•T
SMPL
durations must be selected according to the application scope and
SAR
is easier to choose since it depends only on the selected ADC bit
SAR
minimum duration depends on the external electrical components of the input
SMPL
and T
SMPL
constraints
SAR
is more complex and depends on various parameters:
path (Section 3.2.7: Effect of the analog signal source resistance and Section 3.2.8:
Effect of source capacitance and parasitic capacitance of the PCB):
–R
–C
: analog source output impedance
AIN
PCB
or C
: PCB parasitic capacitor or analog input decoupling/filtering
AIN
capacitor
•T
depends on the internal STM32 SAR circuitry (R
SMPL
PAR
, C
PAR
and C
ADC
–SAR ADC channel type: fast, slow, direct (refer to the device datasheet)
–Internal circuitry parameters vary according to the package dimensions,
manufacturing process, temperature and supply voltage levels.
•T
also varies according to application constraints and functionalities:
SMPL
–Maximum conversion error: ±1 LSB or higher
–ADC resolution (expressed in bits)
–Number of ADCs running in parallel
):
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AN2834How to get the best ADC accuracy
MSv66808V2
Analog
signal
source
V
DD
V
DDA
ADCCLK
STM32/ADC
V
REF+
GND
VSSA VSSVREF-
VDDA VDDVREF+
Mux input
SAR
converter
Digital
controler
ADC OUTPUT CODE[]
C
PCB
or C
AIN
C
ADC
R
AIN
R
PAR
C
PAR
Figure 26. Simplified external/internal SAR ADC sampling diagram
Based on the above constraints, the minimum T
required to achieve the maximum
SMPL
output sampling rate can then be estimated.
The device datasheet provides a few T
LSB for each channel type, different R
values to obtain a maximum accuracy of ± 1/2
SMPL
values, a given CAIN/CPCB capacitor, and in the
AIN
worst conditions of package dimensions, temperature, manufacturing process and supply
voltages.
Figure 27 and Figure 28 show the impact of the desired accuracy (from ± 0.5 to ± 3 LSB)
and ADC resolution (expressed in LSB) on the input signal to reach the voltage accuracy.
When the resolution is low and the error accuracy is high, the required signal sampling time
is short, whereas when the resolution is high and the error accuracy is low, the required
signal sampling time is long.
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How to get the best ADC accuracyAN2834
Figure 27 shows that the sampling duration increases with the ADC resolution. It also shows
the voltage variation on the STM32 ADC analog input pin. The first ADC conversion starts at
0
ns. For negative timings, the curve shows the input voltage state before the first ADC
conversion.
Figure 27. Example of SAR ADC input sampling time vs ADC resolution
1. The above results are obtained in the following conditions:
V
= 2 V
REF+
= 1 kΩ
R
AIN
C
AIN/CPCB
Typical conditions of voltage, temperature, process, package and number of ADCs running.
= 2 nF
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AN2834How to get the best ADC accuracy
Figure 28 shows that the sampling duration has to be increased to achieve a higher
accuracy: a 23.8 ns sampling duration is required to obtain a 12-bit resolution and ± 3 LSB,
whereas a 40.4
ns duration is needed for 12 bits and ± 0.5 LSB.
Figure 28. Example of SAR ADC input sampling time vs accuracy
1. The above results are obtained in the following conditions:
R
= 1 kΩ
AIN
C
AIN/CPCB
12-bit ADC resolution
Typical conditions of voltage, temperature, process, package and number of ADCs running.
= 2 nF
Tab le 1 gives examples of sampling time for STM32H7 Series with R
C
AIN/CPCB
Acquisition
= 2 nF, V
= 2 V and F
REF+
= 20 MHz.
ADC
Table 1. Minimum sampling time for STM32H7 Series devices (in ns)
accuracy
± 0.5 LSB17.127.140.453.867.1
± 1 LSB7.920.433.847.160.4
± 2 LSB0.017.127.140.453.8
± 3 LSB0.010.423.837.150.4
8 bits10 bits12 bits14 bits16 bits
When the ADC resolution is 8 bits and the acquisition accuracy is greater than ± 1 LSB,
T
can be minimized to a few picoseconds due to LSB amplitude, whereas with an ADC
SMPL
AN2834 Rev 633/58
= 1 kΩ,
AIN
57
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How to get the best ADC accuracyAN2834
resolution is 16 bits and an acquisition accuracy equal to ± 0.5 LSB, T
is 67.1
ns.
maximum value
SMPL
SAR ADC conversion duration and sampling rate dependency versus SMP
The ADC SMP parameter enables programming the duration of the ADC sampling
operation to a given number of ADC clock cycles. SMP can be selected among a list of
values that depends on each STM32 Series (see
requirements of wide frequency-range applications, SMP values approximately follow a
logarithm law.
Figure 29. SMP clock cycles vs STM32 Series
Figure 29 and Table 2). To match the
ADC SMP
Table 2. ADC SMP selection vs STM32 Series (in ADC clock cycles)
STM32L4/
STM32L0/
code
0 1.51.542.531.5
13.57.596.5152.5
27.513.51612.5288.5
312.528.52424.55616.5
419.541.54847.58432.5
539.555.59692.511264.5
679.571.5192247.5144387.5
7160.5239.5384640.5480810.5
STM32G0
STM32F1STM32L1
STM32L5/
STM32G4/
STM32WB
STM32F7STM32H7
The distribution of ADC SMP values is a constraint to optimize the ADC sampling time. In
the following example, which is based on STM32H7 Series, some application conditions are
optimized.
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AN2834How to get the best ADC accuracy
Tab le 3 to Tab l e 7 show examples of results for STM32H7 Series obtained with R
C
AIN/CPCB
= 2 nF, V
REF+
= 2 V and F
= 20 MHz.
ADC
= 1 kΩ,
AIN
Tab le 3 shows the real minimum sampling time expressed in ADC clock cycles (sampling
duration / ADC clock period) corresponding to Table 1.
Table 3. Rounded minimum sampling time vs resolution
and maximum error (in ADC clock cycles)
Acquisition
accuracy
± 0.5 LSB4691114
± 1 LSB2571013
± 2 LSB146911
± 3 LSB135811
For STM32H7 Series, T
parameter: 1.5, 2.5, 8.5, 16.5, 32.5, 64.5, 387.5 or 810.5 ADC clock cycles.
8 bits10 bits12 bits14 bits16 bits
can be programmed to the following values, through the SMP
SMPL
Table 4 shows
the minimum SMP value required to reach various input sampling accuracies:
Table 4. Minimum SMP values vs resolution and maximum error
(in ADC clock cycles)
Acquisition
accuracy
8 bits10 bits12 bits14 bits16 bits
± 0.5 LSB8.58.516.516.516.5
± 1 LSB2.58.58.516.516.5
± 2 LSB1.58.58.516.516.5
± 3 LSB1.58.58.58.516.5
Tab le 5 gives additional clock cycles between the real minimum sampling time and the
corresponding minimum SMP value.
Table 5. Additional ADC clock cycles due to SMP
vs resolution and maximum error
Acquisition
accuracy
± 0.5 LSB4.52.57.55.52.5
± 1 LSB0.53.51.56.53.5
± 2 LSB1.54.52.57.55.5
± 3 LSB1.55.53.50.55.5
8 bits10 bits12 bits14 bits16 bits
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How to get the best ADC accuracyAN2834
In normal application conditions, an optimized sampling time is achieved for an 8-bit ADC
resolution and an accuracy greater than ±
obtained for a 12-bit ADC resolution and an accuracy lower than ±
1 LSB, while non- optimized sampling times are
1 LSB, and 14-bit and
16-bit resolution with an accuracy lower than ± 3 LSB.
Tab le 6 shows the total conversion times including T
output sampling rate (T
). For STM32H7 Series, T
SMPL
duration and the computed ADC
SAR
can be programmed to the
SAR
following values: 4.5, 5.5, 6.5, 7.5 or 8.5 ADC clock cycles for ADC resolutions of 8-, 10-,
12-, 14- and 16 bit resolutions.
Table 6. Minimum ADC conversion time (T
SMPL
+ T
) vs resolution
SAR
and maximum error (in ADC clock cycles)
Acquisition
accuracy
± 0.5 LSB1314232425
± 1 LSB714152425
± 2 LSB614152425
± 3 LSB614151625
8 bits10 bits12 bits14 bits16 bits
The maximum ADC output sampling rate for this application conditions can then be
computed.
Table 7. Maximum ADC output sampling rate (MSPS)
vs resolution and maximum error
Acquisition
accuracy
8 bits10 bits12 bits14 bits16 bits
± 0.5 LSB1.51.40.90.80.8
± 1 LSB2.91.41.30.80.8
± 2 LSB3.31.41.30.80.8
± 3 LSB3.31.41.31.30.8
When the ADC resolution is 8 bits and the acquisition accuracy is above ± 2 LSB, the
maximum ADC sampling rate output 3.3
C
AIN/CPCB
= 2 nF, F
= 20 MHz, and typical conditions of voltage, temperature, process,
ADC
MSPS, is achieved with R
= 1 kΩ,
AIN
package and number of ADCs running.
When the ADC resolution is 16 bits, the ADC sampling rate is reduced to 0.8 MSPS with an
acquisition accuracy lower than ± 3 LSB.
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AN2834How to get the best ADC accuracy
Method for estimating the SAR ADC sampling rate (T
SMPL
)
A mathematical model is not accurate enough given the number of parameters and their
non-linear characteristics. Only a complex design simulation can provide a very good
estimate of the minimum T
estimation tool is available on demand. T
duration in various conditions. Such SAR ADC sampling
SMPL
simulation results are simply post-processed
SMPL
and rendered based on ADC clock frequency to achieve the desired ADC output data rate.
The simulation tool performs the following functions:
•Estimation of T
•Visualization of T
versus ADC frequency (see Figure 30).
SMPL
margin versus R
SMPL
AIN/CAIN
values or tolerance for a given channel
(see Figure 31)
The tool helps selecting the correct SMP value in order to optimize the sampling duration for
any ADC frequency range. It directly shows the output data rate that is achievable with the
selected ADC resolution.
Figure 30. T
estimation versus ADC frequency and comparison of minimum
SMPL
for slow and fast channels with same R
T
SMPL
duration
AIN/CAIN
1. The above results are obtained in the worst conditions of temperature, supply voltages and process.
AN2834 Rev 637/58
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Figure 31. T
for fast channels with R
1. The above results are obtained in the worst conditions of temperature, supply voltage and process.
estimation versus ADC frequency and comparison of minimum
SMPL
T
SMPL
AIN/CAIN
duration
= 51 Ω/10 pf and 100 Ω/33 pF
4.2.7 External analog buffer usage
The use of a follower amplifier (buffer) in front of an ADC analog input reduces the
resistance of the source effect because of the high input impedance of the amplifier and its
very low output impedance. It isolates R
AIN
from R
ADC
.
However, the amplifier introduces an offset error that must be taken into account as an
additional error. The used amplifier should provide a small offset error.
The amplifier speed (bandwidth and slew rate) parameter is important for designing fast
signal data acquisition applications.
The amplifier in follower mode offers a very low output impedance. The ADC can then use
short sampling times. However, the required sampling time must be designed also regarding
the amplifier speed. The amplifier has a low output impedance due to its feedback (driving
the output to be on the same voltage as the input). This feedback response has a limited
speed which is defined by the used amplifier speed. The discharged sampling capacitor is connected to the amplifier output if the ADC starts the sampling operation. The amplifier
(through its feedback) starts compensating this unbalance by increasing the output driving
and charging the sampling capacitor. The speed of this output driving depends on the
amplifier speed (propagation of the input change to the output change). The chosen ADC
sampling time must be designed to be several times longer than this amplifier propagation
delay.
4.2.8 Source frequency condition vs. source and parasitic capacitors
The external capacitance C
as V
if the capacitor is not fully charged by the analog source (see Figure 16.).
AIN
will not allow the analog input voltage to be exactly the same
If the analog input signal changes, then the analog signal frequency (F
that the time period of this analog signal is at least: 10 × R
T
= analog signal time period = 1/F
AIN
We have:
Therefore:
AIN
.
AIN
× (C
AIN
+ Cp).
For example:
For R
= 25 kΩ, C
AIN
= 7 pF, Cp = 3 pF, this gives:
AIN
Thus, the maximum frequency of the source will be:
So for the above defined source characteristics (ca
pacitance and resistance), the frequency
of the source must not exceed 400 kHz, otherwise the ADC conversion
accurate.
Figure 32. Recommended values for R
AIN
and C
vs. source frequency F
AIN
) should be such
AIN
.
result will be not
AIN
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Analog
in
Digital
I/O
STM32
ai15490
4.2.9 Temperature-effect compensation
One method is be to fully characterize the offset and gain drift and provide a lookup table in
memory to correct measurement according to temperature change. This calibration involves
additional cost and takes time.
The second method consists in recalibrating the ADC when the temperature change
reaches given values, by using the internal temperature sensor and the ADC watchdog.
4.2.10 Minimizing injection current
Check the application to verify whether any digital or analog input voltage can be less than
V
or V
SS
on the accuracy will be greater if a digital input is close to the analog input being converted.
Negative current injection on any of the standard (non-robust) analog input pins should be
avoided as this would significantly reduce the accuracy of the conversion being performed
on another analog input.
. If it is the case, a negative injection current will flow from the pins. The effect
SSA
It is recommended to connect a Schottky diode between V
birth to the negative injection current.
The ADC accuracy will not be affected by positive injection currents within the limits
specified for I
INJ(PIN)
and ΣI
INJ(PIN)
characteristics section).
4.2.11 Minimizing I/O pin crosstalk
The noise produced by crosstalk can be reduced by shielding the analog signal by placing
ground tracks across it.
Figure 33 shows the recommended grounding between signals.
Figure 33. Crosstalk between I/O pins
and the I/O pin that can give
SSA
(refer to the corresponding STM32 datasheet, I/O port
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AN2834How to get the best ADC accuracy
ADC
ADC
Ground
loop
Not recommended
Recommended
Sensor
Shielded cable
Sensor
Do not ground the shield at both endsGround the shield at the receiver end only
ai15491
4.2.12 EMI-induced noise reduction
You can reduce EMI noise using proper shielding and layout techniques. The possible
sources of emission must be physically separated from the receptors. They can be
separated electrically by proper grounding and shielding.
Shielding technique
Placing ground tracks alongside sensitive analog signals provides shielding on the PCB.
The other side of the two-layer PCB should also have a ground plane. This prevents
interference and I/O crosstalk affecting the signal (see
Signals coming from distant locations (such as sensors) should be connected to the PCB
using shielded cable. Care should be taken to minimize the length of the paths of these
types of signal on the PCB.
The shield should not be used to carry the ground reference from the sensor or analog
source to the microcontroller. A separate wire should be used as ground. The shield should
be grounded at only one place near the receiver such as the analog ground of the
microcontroller. Grounding the shield at both ends (source and receiver) might lead to the
creation of ground loops, with the result of current flowing through the shield. In this case,
the shield acts like an antenna and the purpose of the shielding is lost.
The shielding concept also applies to grounding the chassis of the application if it is metallic.
And it also helps remove EMI and EMC interference. In this case the mains earth ground is
used to shield the chassis. Similarly DC ground can be used for shielding in case of the
earth ground not being available.
Figure 34).
Figure 34. Shielding technique
AN2834 Rev 641/58
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ai15492b
Digital
circuitry
Analog
circuitry
STM32
Power
supply
Analog
ground
Digital
ground
plane
plane
(Noise generator)
(Affected by noise)
4.2.13 PCB layout recommendations
Separating the analog and digital layouts
It is recommended to separate the analog and digital circuitry on the PCB (see Figure 35).
This also avoids tracks crossing each other. The tracks carrying digital signals may
introduce high-frequency noise in analog signals because of coupling.
The digital signals produce high-frequency noise because of fast switching.
Coupling of a capacitive nature is formed due to the metal connections (tracks) separated
by the dielectric provided by the PCB base (glass, ceramic or plastic).
It is recommended to use different planes for analog and digital grounds. If there is a lot of
analog circuitry then an analog ground plane is recommended. The analog ground must be
placed below the analog circuitry.
Figure 35. Separating the analog and digital layouts
Separating the analog- and digital-circuit power supplies
It is desirable to have separate analog and digital power supplies in cases where there is a
lot of analog and digital circuits external to the microcontroller (see
on the STM32 package, different analog and digital power supply and ground pins are
available. The V
DDA/VREF+
If you use a switching-type power supply for the digital circuitry, you should use a separate
linear supply for the analog circuit. Also, if you expect a lot of noise on the DC power supply
due to I/O switching etc., it is preferable to use a separate supply for the analog circuit.
42/58AN2834 Rev 6
and VDD pins can be powered from separate power supplies.
Figure 36). Depending
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AN2834How to get the best ADC accuracy
ai15493b
V
DDA
V
REF+
V
SSA
STM32
V
REF-
V
DD
Vout1
Vout2
GND
V
SS
SMPS
Linear
regulator
Analog
Circuit
Star
Network
Figure 36. Separating the analog and digital supplies
It is also recommended to connect the analog and digital grounds in a star network. This
means that you must connect the analog and digital grounds at only one point. This
prevents the introduction of noise in the analog power supply circuit due to digital signal
switching. This also prevents current surges from affecting the analog circuit.
Using separate PCB layers for the supply and ground
•Two-layer PCBs
For two-layer PCBs, it is recommended to provide a maximum ground plane area. The
power supply (V
their ground shorted together via multiple connections in the overlap region if the two
layers feature the same ground signals. The unused PCB area can be used as the
ground plane.
The other convention is to connect the unused PCB area on one layer to the positive
supply (V
) and the unused area on the other layer, to ground. The advantage is a
DD
reduced inductance for power and ground signals. The maximum ground area provided
for ground on the PCB results in a good shielding effect and reduces the
electromagnetic induction susceptibility of the circuit.
•Multilayer PCBs
Wherever possible, try to use multilayer PCBs and use separate layers on the PCB for
power and ground. The V
connected to the power planes, thus reducing the length of track needed to connect the
supply and ground. Long tracks have a high inductive effect. The analog ground can be
connected at one point to this ground plane. If so, it should be close to the power
supply.
A full ground plane provides good shielding and reduces the electromagnetic induction
susceptibility of the circuit.
•Single-layer PCBs
Single-layer PCBs are used to save cost. They can be used only in simple applications
when the number of connections is very limited. It is recommended to fill the unused
area with ground. Jumpers can be used to connect different parts of the PCB.
DD
, V
) should run through thick tracks. The two layers can have
DDA
and VSS pins of the various devices can be directly
DD
AN2834 Rev 643/58
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How to get the best ADC accuracyAN2834
4.2.14 Component placement and routing
Place the components and route the signal traces on the PCB so as to shield analog inputs.
Components like resistors and capacitors must be connected with very short leads. You can
use surface-mounted device (SMD) resistors and capacitors. You can place SMD capacitors
close to the microcontroller for decoupling purposes.
Use wide tracks for power, otherwise the series resistance of the tracks would cause a
voltage drop. Indeed, narrow power tracks have a non-negligible finite resistance, so that
high load currents through them would cause a voltage drop across them.
Quartz crystals must be surrounded by ground tracks/plane. The other side of the two-layer
PCB below the crystal should preferably be covered by the ground plane. Most crystals
have a metallic body that should be grounded. You should also place the crystal close to the
microcontroller. You can use a surface-mounted crystal.
4.3 Software methods to improve precision
•Averaging samples:
–Averaging decreases speed but can improve accuracy
•Digital filtering (50/60 Hz suppression from DC value)
–A proper sampling frequency is set (the trigger from timer is useful in this case).
–Software post-processing is performed on sampled data (e.g.comb filter for 50 Hz
noise and its harmonics suppression).
•Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) for AC measurements
–This methods allows showing harmonic parts in measured signal.
–It is slower due to the use of more computation power.
•ADC calibration: offset, gain, bit weight calibration
ADC calibration decreases internal ADC errors. However, the internal ADC structure
must be known.
•Minimizing the internal noise generated by CPU
The application has to be designed
–to use minimum disturbance from the microcontroller during ADC conversion.
–to minimize digital signal changes during sampling and conversion (digital
silence).
4.3.1 Averaging samples
The principle of this method is to increase ADC precision but decrease ADC conversion
speed (oversampling). If the measured analog signal produces unstable ADC values, then
the mean value of the given input signal can be obtained by averaging a set of values.
Variation can be caused by signal noise or noise generated by the microcontroller itself
(high speed digital signals capacitively coupled to the analog input signal).
Averaging is performed by choosing an appropriate number of samples to be averaged.
This number depends on the required precision, minimum conversion speed and the level of
other ADC errors (if another error has a greater influence on ADC precision, then increasing
the number of averaging values has no effect on total measurement precision).
44/58AN2834 Rev 6
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AN2834How to get the best ADC accuracy
In some STM32 microcontrollers, averaging can be performed by using the hardware
oversampling feature: the ADC performs built-in hardware averaging according to
configurable parameters (number of samples to average and final right bit shift of result).
The advantage of averaging is to improve ADC precision without any hardware changes.
The drawback is that the conversion speed is lower as well as the frequency response (it is
equivalent to decreasing effective sampling frequency).
4.3.2 Digital signal filtering
This method uses digital signal processing techniques.
In principle, averaging is also a simple digital filter with a specific frequency response.
However if the noise frequency spectrum is known, a digital filter can be designed which
minimizes noise influence and maximizes ADC frequency response. For example, if the
noise in the measured signal is coming from the 50
digital filter suppresses only the 50
Hz frequency and delivers data signal without this noise.
The disadvantage of this method is that it requires appropriate microcontroller processing
power and resources: CPU speed and data/program memory usage.
Hz power lines, then an appropriate
AN2834 Rev 645/58
57
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How to get the best ADC accuracyAN2834
U
ef
U
1
2
U
2
2
… U
n
2
+++=
4.3.3 FFT for AC measurement
In some specific cases the application needs to know the amplitude of an AC signal with a
given frequency. In this case the effective value of an AC signal can also be obtained by
using a relatively slow sampling speed (in comparison to the measured signal frequency).
For example, when measuring an AC mains signal (which is near-to-sinusoidal and has
relatively low harmonics content), it is sufficient to choose a sampling frequency 32 times
greater than the mains frequency (50 Hz). In this case harmonics of up to the 15th order can
e obtained. The amplitude of 15th harmonics in the main signal is very small (the next
b
order harmonics can be neglected). The calculated effective value of the mains signal is
obtained with high precision because the effective values of harmonics are added to the
total AC harmonic value as:
So if the 15th harmonics amplitude is only 1% (0.01) from the 1st harmonics (50 Hz), then
its contribution to the total effective value will be only 0.01% (because the square addition in
the above equation gives: 0.01
The principle of this method is therefore to sample the AC signal with a known frequency
a
nd then perform post-processing on the FFT for each measured period. Because the
number of sampling points per measured signal period is small (32 points for example) then
the performance needed for FFT processing is not so high (only 32-point FFT for example).
2
= 0.0001).
This method is well adapted for AC measureme
nt of signals with lower distortion. The
drawback is that it requires precise signal sampling:
•The
frequency of the measured signal must be known and the ADC sampling
frequency must be set exactly as a 2
n
multiplier of the measured frequency.
•The input signal frequency is measured by another method.
•The ADC sampling frequency is tuned by programming the prescaler and MCU master
clock selection (if sampling is performed with an inaccurate clock an interpolation can
be used to obtain samples at the required points).
46/58AN2834 Rev 6
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AN2834How to get the best ADC accuracy
4.3.4 ADC calibration
This method requires knowledge of the internal ADC structure and of how the ADC
converter is implemented inside the microcontroller. This is necessary to design a
physical/mathematical model of the ADC implementation.
A proper physical model (which is usually a schematic diagram) is used as a basis for
describing it mathematically. From the mathematical model, each element in the model can
be obtained by a set of equations (for example, resistor/capacitor values which represent bit
weights). To solve these equations, it is necessary to perform a set of practical
measurements and obtain a set of solvable equations.
From the measured values and mathematical computation of the model, all the known
values of model elements (resistors, voltages, capacitors,...) can be put into the schematic
diagram.
As a result, instead of the ADC schematic with the designed values, an ADC schematic with
the real values for a given microcontroller can be obtained.
Computed model parameters are stored in the microcontroller memory after calibration and
used in post-processing to correct ADC values.
4.3.5 Minimizing internal CPU noise
When the CPU operates, it generates a lot of internal and external signal changes which are
transferred into the ADC peripheral through capacitive coupling. This disturbance influences
ADC precision (unpredictable noise due to different microcontroller operations).
To minimize influences of the CPU (and of other peripherals) on ADC, it is necessary to
minimize digital signal changes during sampling and conversion time (digital silence). This is
done using one of the following methods (applied during sampling and conversion time):
•minimizing I/O pin changes
•minimizing internal CPU changes (CPU stop, wait mode)
•stopping clock for unnecessary peripherals (timers, communications...)
AN2834 Rev 647/58
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How to get the best ADC accuracyAN2834
ADC input
ai17903b
STM32
U
in
R
in
C
ext
ai17904b
ADC input signal during conversion:
an ADC noise is injected to the input.
4.4 High impedance source measurement
This section describes the ADC measurement behavior of STM32 ADC when a signal
source with high internal impedance is used. It explains how to design an application to
reach the requested precision and provides workarounds.
4.4.1 ADC input stage problem
The ADC embedded in STM32 devices is a switched-capacitor ADC. Switched capacitors
work also as sampling capacitors (see
When a signal comes from a voltage source with high internal impedance (for instance,
150
kΩ), an additional error can be seen in measurement results. Error signals have also
been observed on the ADC input pin, as shown in
voltage: Uin = 0 V, Rin = 150 kΩ, C
Figure 37. Typical voltage source connection to ADC input
Section 2.1 for a detailed explanation).
Figure 39 (if the voltage source has zero
= 0 pF):
ext
Figure 38. Noise observed on ADC input pin during ADC conversions
48/58AN2834 Rev 6
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AN2834How to get the best ADC accuracy
ai17905b
ADC input
S
1
C
sh
ai17906b
Sampling time
(t
S
) = Discharging
time
Conversion
time (t
C
)
Added error
Uinput
t
4.4.2 Explanation of the behavior
The explanation of this additional pin noise and additional measurement error (in case a
signal source with high internal impedance is used) comes from the internal ADC structure:
its input sampling circuit.
Figure 39 shows a simplified schematic of the input stage (sample and hold circuit).
Figure 39. ADC simplified schematic of input stage - sample and hold circuit
The spikes (noise) present on ADC input pin during conversions are related to the sampling
switch (S
capacitor C
starts discharging through the source impedance (R
end of the sampling time (t
voltage remains on the capacitor C
(t
) is too short, the remaining voltage does not drop under 0.5 LSB and ADC measurement
S
shows an additional error.
). If the switch is closed, some charge (coming from the sample and hold
1
or caused by another effect) is transferred to the input pin. Then this charge
sh
) when the switch S1 is opened. The remaining undischarged
S
and ADC measures this voltage. If the sampling time
sh
). The discharge process ends at the
in
Figure 40 illustrates this process.
Figure 40. ADC input pin noise spikes from internal charge during sampling process
Note that a non-zero external capacitance C
during conversion time the pin capacitance is discharged through source impedance R
(parasitic pin capacitance) also exists, so
ext
.
in
AN2834 Rev 649/58
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How to get the best ADC accuracyAN2834
TSf
ADCRinCsh
⋅()2
N1+
()ln⋅⋅≥cycles[]
ai17907b
Original added error
Uinput
t
Added error < 0.5 lsb
Original
sampling time
(t
S
)
Conversion
time (t
C
)
Extended
sampling time
(t
S
)
4.4.3 Minimizing additional errors
Workaround for high impedance sources
To solve the additional error problem, the sampling time (TS) can be increased by
configuring ADC settings in MCU firmware, so that the C
source impedance R
. The time constant (Rin x Csh) is the reference for choosing the
in
sampling time. To calculate the sampling time cycles, use this formula (for a maximum error
of 1/2
LSB, see also Section 4.2.6):
charge is discharged through the
sh
The ADC clock (f
) is another important factor, since slowing down the ADC clock
ADC
increases the sampling time.
Figure 41. Effect of sampling time extension
If the maximum register value of the sampling time (TS) setting is reached and the problem
is still present, you need a more complex solution which is applicable also for
measurements of source with extra high internal impedance (see
extra high impedance sources).
Note that for this application you must take into account not only the internal sampling
capacitance, but also any external parasitic capacitance (in parallel to C
capacitance or PCB path capacitance.
Do not add any external capacitor (C
workaround. Its capacity will increase the timing constant (R
will remain.
50/58AN2834 Rev 6
Section : Workaround for
), such as pin
ext
) to the input pin when applying this above
ext
x Csh || C
in
) and the problem
ext
Page 51
AN2834How to get the best ADC accuracy
C
extCsh
U
max
U
lsb
--------------
⋅≥16pF
4096
0.5
-------------
131nF≈⋅=
ai17908b
Uinput
t
Added error < 0.5 lsb
Recommended
t
C
Added error > 0.5 lsb
Too
short t
C
Workaround for extra high impedance sources
This workaround combines both hardware and software changes.
Hardware change
The hardware change consists in adding a large external capacitor (C
) to the input pin.
ext
The capacity size connected to the input pin must reach the value that causes the
discharging of the internal sampling capacity C
increasing the voltage on C
to more than 0.5 LSB.
ext
to the external capacitor C
sh
without
ext
Example
If the internal capacitor (Csh = 16 pF) is charged to full scale (U
4096
LSB), then the external capacitor C
level (U
) after discharging Csh to it. The capacity of C
lsb
The closest larger standard value chosen here is: C
must be charged at maximum 0.5 LSB voltage
ext
ext
= 150 nF.
ext
will then be:
, which corresponds to
max
If the internal sampling capacitor Csh is not charged to full voltage range (4096 level) before
sampling, the C
value can be computed by replacing “4096” in the formula above.
ext
Calculating with 4096 level gives precise measurement results also in the case of ADC input
channels switching (C
was charged from different ADC input in the previous
sh
measurement).
A side effect of this hardware workaround is the cyclical charging of C
taken into account. Each ADC conversion transfers charge from C
charges the C
larger values if it is not discharged between two conversions.
below 0.5 LSB, as described above, but more transfers can charge C
ext
Figure 42 shows an example
which must be
ext
to C
sh
ext
. One transfer
ext
to
of this scenario where the ADC measurement is performed faster.
Figure 42. Charging the external capacitor with too short time between conversions
AN2834 Rev 651/58
57
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How to get the best ADC accuracyAN2834
Q
chingarg
Q
sh
CshU
max
⋅==
Q
dischingarg
U
lsb
R
in
-----------
e
t
R
inCext
-------------------–
td
0
t
C
⋅=
CshU
max
⋅
U
lsb
R
in
-----------
e
t
R
inCext
-------------------
td
0
t
C
⋅=
t
C
RinC
ext
⋅()–In 1
C
sh
C
ext
-----------
U
max
U
lsb
--------------
–⋅=
1
C
sh
C
ext
-----------
U
max
U
lsb
--------------
–0>
1
C
sh
C
ext
-----------
U
max
U
lsb
--------------
>
C
extCsh
U
max
U
lsb
--------------
⋅>
Software change
The side effect mentioned above can be solved by software. The objective is to create a
delay in order to let C
“discharge time” between ADC conversions. The “discharge time” (t
transferred charge from C
assumption is that C
discharge through Rin (not measure so often) giving enough
ext
>> Csh.
ext
sh
to C
(charging) and from C
ext
to Rin (discharging). The
ext
) is equal to the
C
where:
U
....... 0.5 LSB voltage level
lsb
U
..... 4096 LSB voltage level (worst case)
max
Q
charging
= Q
discharging
Simplification of the above formula gives the final formula for the required waiting time
between conversions:
This final formula shows dependency between the external capacitor C
waiting time between two conversions if the precision U
is needed.
lsb
and the required
ext
From the same formula you can see that the argument in logarithm must be positive and
th
erefore there is a condition for the minimal value of C
Choosing a larger C
decreases more the time between conversions (tC).
ext
ext
:
52/58AN2834 Rev 6
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AN2834How to get the best ADC accuracy
C
sh
U
max
U
lsb
--------------
⋅
RinC
ext
⋅()tC=
RinC
ext
⋅()RinC
ext
⋅()–In 1
C
sh
C
ext
-----------
U
max
U
lsb
--------------
–⋅=
1–In 1
C
sh
C
ext
-----------
U
max
U
lsb
--------------
–=
e
1–
1
C
sh
C
ext
-----------
U
max
U
lsb
--------------
–=
C
ext
C
sh
U
max
U
lsb
--------------
1e
1–
–
------------------------
158,C
sh
U
max
U
lsb
--------------
⋅≈=
t
C
RinC
ext
⋅()–In 1
1
158,
-------------–⋅RinC
ext
⋅()≈≈
An extra large C
However, increasing C
the “external” timing constant R
The formulas below show how to choose the optimal C
ext
(C
>>
ext
limits the frequency bandwidth of measurement signal (increasing
ext
) enables sampling more often.
. C
ext
).
in
value: signal bandwidth in
ext
correlation with sample time. Signal bandwidth is characterized by an “external” timing
constant, so optimal solution is to charge C
during tC:
ext
After simplification we obtain the final formula for optimal C
ext
:
and the corresponding waiting time between conversions:
Practically the firmware must not program the ADC in continuous mode but only in single
mode and must ensure that there will be a time gap between conversions with duration
equal to t
together with the hardware change (adding an external capacitor C
Without implementation of t
after the first one) the external capacitor C
capacitor. After a lot of cycles the voltage on C
. This adding of waiting time is the software change which must be applied
C
waiting time in software (for instance, running a conversion just
C
will be cyclically charged from the Csh
ext
will reach a quite high error value (as
ext
ext
).
previously shown in Figure 42).
A practical example of implementation for STM32L1 ADC is shown below:
Csh = 16 pF..... ADC property
R
= 150 kΩ..... signal source property
in
AN2834 Rev 653/58
57
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How to get the best ADC accuracyAN2834
C
ext
158,C
sh
U
max
U
lsb
--------------
⋅158,16pF
4096
0.5
-------------
⋅⋅ 207nF220nF≈==
t
C
RinCsh⋅()–In 1
C
sh
C
ext
-----------
U
max
U
lsb
--------------
–⋅150k Ω 220nF⋅()–In 1
16pF
220nF
-----------------
4096
0.5
-------------
–⋅29891μ s30ms≈==
ai17909b
H = switch on
L = switch off
U
in
C
sh
S
1
U
= 4096 LSB..... ADC property
max
U
= 0.5 LSB..... required precision
lsb
4.4.4 Source of described problem - ADC design
The following sections list some possible causes for the charging of the internal sampling
capacitor C
design are mentioned.
Parasitic switch capacitance effect
The sampling switch inside ADC sampling circuit (see Figure 39) is not ideal. In reality the
sample and hold switch (S1) is designed as 2 transistors (PMOS and NMOS, see
Figure 43):
. This is not an exhaustive list; only the main possible sources of the ADC
sh
Figure 43. Implementation of sampling switch
The switch is controlled by the gate voltages of transistors (inverted signal on PMOS
transistor). This design is a standard bidirectional switch (for rail to rail range of input U
voltages). Both transistors have parasitic capacitances between gate and source.
in
If those capacitances are charged (close to the switch), then their charge can be transferred
to the sampling capacitor (see
54/58AN2834 Rev 6
Figure 44).
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AN2834How to get the best ADC accuracy
ai17910b
L → H switching on
U
in
C
sh
C
ext
S
1
i
i
ai17911b
Csh
R
parasitic
ADC input
S
1
Figure 44. Parasitic capacitances of sampling switch
This charging and discharging currents (PMOS and NMOS asymmetric capacitances) can
cause charge transfer to sampling capacitor C
sh
.
Internal charging of sampling capacitor
It is possible that after the conversion process (successive approximation process in SAR
type of ADC) the sample and hold capacitor C
is charged to some voltage. The reason
sh
can be:
•some leakage current to Csh (parasitic current inside ADC structure, see Figure 45)
•residual charge transfer from the switches when ADC structure is switched back to
default state before next conversion
•other reasons (related to internal ADC parasitic structures)
Figure 45. Parasitic current example inside ADC structure
AN2834 Rev 655/58
57
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ConclusionAN2834
5 Conclusion
This application notes describes the main ADC errors and then methods and application
design rules to minimize STM32 microcontroller ADC errors and obtain the best ADC
accuracy.
The choice of method depends on the application requirements and is always a
compromise between speed, precision, enough computation power and design topology.
The published methods lead to a precision improvement and are optimized for the design of
an ADC converter using the SAR (successive approximation register) principle.
56/58AN2834 Rev 6
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AN2834Revision history
6 Revision history
Table 8. Document revision history
DateRevisionChanges
14-Nov-20081Initial release.
Extended to STM32Fx Series and STM32L1 Series devices.
Added Section 2.1: SAR ADC internal structure.
16-Sep-20132
Added Section 4.4: High impedance source measurement.
Added Section 4.3: Software methods to improve precision.
Text improvements and additions.
Changed the Disclaimer on the final page.
Document scope extended to all STM32 microcontrollers.
Updated Figure 5: Step 2: If MSB = 0, then compare with ¼VREF and
Figure 6: Step 2: If MSB = 1, then compare with ¾VREF.
Updated Section 4.3: Software methods to improve precision
introduction.
Added STM32L0/L4 ADC hardware oversampling in Section 4.2.3:
15-Feb-20173
Analog-input signal noise elimination, Section 4.2.4: Adding white
noise or triangular sweep to improve resolution and Section 4.3.1:
Averaging samples.
Harmonized hexadecimal notation to ‘0x’.
Harmonized least significant bit term to ‘LSB’.
Updated figures look-and-feel and ground symbol. Color legend
added when required.
Modified Introduction.
Added the Arm logo and trademark notice in Section 1: General
information.
Added Section 3.2.3: Reference voltage decoupling and impedance.
Updated Section 4.2.1: Reference voltage / Power supply noise
minimization, Section 4.2.2: Reference voltage / Power-supply
regulation, Section 4.2.3: Analog-input signal noise elimination,
07-Nov-20194
Section 4.2.4: Adding white noise or triangular sweep to improve
resolution (references to STM32 devices changed), Section 4.2.5:
Matching the ADC dynamic range to the maximum signal amplitude,
Section 4.2.6: Analog source resistance calculation.
Added Section 4.2.7: External analog buffer usage
Updated Section 4.2.8: Source frequency condition vs. source and
parasitic capacitors, Section 4.3.1: Averaging samples (references to
STM32 devices changed).
25-Aug-20205
16-Dec-20206
Renamed Section 4.2.6 into SAR ADC sampling time prerequisites
and section deeply reworked.
Updated Table 2: ADC SMP selection vs STM32 Series (in ADC clock
cycles).
Updated Section 3.1.3: Differential linearity error and Section 3.1.5:
Total unadjusted error.
AN2834 Rev 657/58
57
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AN2834
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