PASCO OS-8515B Instruction Manual

Download

Page 1

N O

Instruction Manual with

Experiment Guide and

Basic Optics System

OS-8515B

Teachers’ Notes

012-09614B

Optics Bench

N O

90 90

O S

-8 4

ENT

B A

IC R A

O R

M A

Page 2

Basic Optics System Table of Contents

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

About the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

About the Experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Experiment 1: Color Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Experiment 2: Prism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Experiment 3: Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Experiment 4: Snell’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Experiment 5: Total Internal Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Experiment 6: Convex and Concave Lenses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Experiment 7: Hollow Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Experiment 8: Lensmaker’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Experiment 9: Apparent Depth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Experiment 10: Reversibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Experiment 11: Dispersion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Experiment 12: Focal Length and Magnification of a Thin Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Experiment 13: Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Experiment 14: Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Experiment 15: Shadows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Telescope and Microscope Test Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Teacher’s Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Technical Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Page 3

Basic Optics System

N O

R MA

OS-8515B

Optics Bench

0 3

90 90

-84

0 8

IC R A

OP Y TA

ICS B LE

N E

O P

M O

0 9

0 7

4 0

Included Equipment Part Number

1. 1.2 m Optics Bench OS-8508

2. Viewing Screen OS-8467

3. +100 mm Mounted Lens 003-07204

4. +200 mm Mounted Lens 003-07205

5. Adjustable Lens Holder OS-8474

6. Light Source OS-8470

7. Ray Table with D-shaped Lens OS-8465

8. Ray Optics Kit with: OS-8516A

a. Storage Box/Water Tank 740-177

b. Mirror 636-05100

c. Hollow Lens OS-8511

d. Convex Lens 636-05501

e. Concave Lens 636-05502

f. Acrylic Rhombus 636-05611

Introduction

The PASCO Basic Optics System contains the optics components you will need for a variety of experiments and demonstrations. This manual includes student instructions and teacher’s notes for 15 typical experiments.

For an even greater variety, you can expand the system with any of the Basic Optics kits and components available from PASCO, including lasers, polarizers, diffraction slits, and light sensors. See the PASCO Physics catalog or visit www.pasco.com for details.

Page 4

Basic Optics System About the Equipment

About the Equipment

For detailed information on the Light Source, Ray Table, Adjustable Lens Holder, and Ray Optics Kit, see the instruction sheets included with those components.

Optics Bench Basic Optics components, such as mounted lenses and the adjustable lens holder, snap into the wide central channel of the optics bench. Place the base of the component on the bench and push down firmly to snap it in place. To move it, squeeze the tab on base and slide it along the bench.

Components that include a square bolt and a thumb screw are designed to be fasted to the T-slots on the sides and center of the bench. Slide the bolt into the T-slot, insert the thumb screw through the component’s mounting hold, thread the screw into the bolt and tighten it down.

Use the metric scale on the bench to measure the positions of components.

metric scale for measuring component positions

Light Source The included light source can be used on a tabletop or mounted on the bench. It functions as a bright point source, an illuminated crossed-arrow object, a primary-color source, and a ray box with up to five parallel rays.

Mounted Lenses The Basic Optics System includes two lenses mounted in holders. Use them on the optics bench with the light source, viewing screen, and other Basic Optics components.

Adjustable Lens Holder To use an unmounted lens on the bench, place it in the adjustable lens holder. It will hold any round lens between 20 and 75 mm in diameter.

Viewing Screen Mount the screen on the bench to view real images formed by lenses.

Ray Table and D-shaped Lens Use the ray table and D-shaped lens on a tabletop with the light source (in ray-box mode) to study angles of incidence, reflection and refraction.

Ray Optics Kit The ray optics kit is a set of optics components designed for use with the light source in ray-box mode. To make the rays easy to see and trace, use the ray optics components on a white sheet of paper on a flat table top. The transparent storage box doubles as a water tank for studying lenses under water.

About the Experiments

T-slots

The experiment instructions on the following pages are arranged and categorized according to which components of the Basic Optics System they use. See the table at the top of each experiment for a detailed list of required equipment. Teachers’ notes, including typical data and answers to questions, can be found starting on page 47.

The experiments that call for the light source work best in a dimly lit room.

Ray Optics Kit Experiments These experiments use the Ray Optics Kit, the Light Source (in ray-box mode), and may require blank white paper, a ruler, protractor, and drawing compass.

1. Color Addition (page 7): Explore the results of mixing colored light and illumi-

nating colored ink with colored light.

Page 5

Model No. OS-8515B About the Experiments

2. Prism (page 9): Show how a prism separates white light into its component col-

ors and show that different colors are refracted at different angles through a prism.

3. Reflection (page 11): Show how rays are reflected from plane, concave, and con-

vex mirrors.

4. Snell’s Law (page 13): Determine the index of refraction of acrylic by measuring

angles of incidence and refraction of a ray passing through the rhombus.

5. Total Internal Reflection (page 15): Determine the critical angle at which total

internal reflection occurs in the rhombus.

6. Convex and Concave Lenses (page 17): Use ray tracing to determine the focal

lengths of lenses.

7. Hollow Lens (page 19): Use the hollow lens and water to explore how the prop-

erties of a lens are related to its shape, its index of refraction, and the index of refraction of the surrounding medium.

8. Lensmaker’s Equation (page 21): Determine the focal length of a concave lens

by measuring its radius of curvature.

9. Apparent Depth (page 23): Measure the apparent depth of the rhombus and

determine its index of refraction by comparing the apparent depth to the actual thickness.

Ray Table Experiments These experiments use the Ray Table with the D-shaped Lens and the Light Source (in ray-box mode).

10. Reversibility (page 27): Explore how the relationship between the angles of inci-

dence and refraction is related to the direction of propagation.

11. Dis per sion (page 29): Show how white light is separated into colors by the

acrylic D-shaped lens and determine the different indices of refraction for red and blue light.

Optics Bench Experiments These experiments use the Optics Bench, Mounted Lenses, and Viewing Screen. Experiments 12 and 15 also use the Light Source.

12. Focal Length and Magnification of a Thin Lens (page 31): Determine the

focal length of a converging lens by forming an image on the viewing screen.

13. Telescope (page 35): Construct a telescope and determine its magnification.

14. Microscope (page 39): Construct a microscope and determine its magnification.

15. Shadows (page 43): Show the umbra and the penumbra of a shadow.

Page 6

Basic Optics System About the Experiments

Page 7

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 1: Color Addition

Experiment 1: Color Addition

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System

Light Source

Convex Lens from Ray Optics Kit

Other Required Equipment

Red, blue, and black pens

Blank white paper

Purpose

In Part 1 of this experiment, you will discover the results of

Light source

mixing red, green, and blue light in different combinations. In Part 2, you will compare the appearance of red, blue, and black ink illuminated by red and blue light.

Part 1: Addition of Colored Light

Procedure

1. Turn the wheel on the light source to select the red,

green, and blue color bars. Fold a blank, white sheet of paper, as shown in Figure 1.1. Lay the paper on a flat surface and put the light source on it so that the colored rays are projected along the horizontal part of the paper and onto the vertical part.

2. Place the convex lens near the ray box so it focuses the rays and causes them to

cross at the vertical part of the paper.

Note: The lens has one flat edge. Place the flat edge on the paper so the lens stands stably without rocking.

3. What is the resulting color where the three

colors come together? Record your observation in Table 1.1.

4. Now block the green ray with a pencil.

What color results from adding red and blue light? Record the result in Table 1.1.

red + blue + green

red + blue

red + green

Table 1.1: Results of Colored Light Addition

Colors Added Resulting Color

Convex lens

Folded paper

Red, green, and blue rays

Combined colors

Figure 1.1: Color addition

5. Block each color in succession to see the

green + blue

addition of the other two colors and complete Table 1.1.

Questions

1. Is mixing colored light the same as mixing colored paint? Explain.

2. White light is said to be the mixture of all colors. In this experiment, did mixing

red, green, and blue light result in white? Explain.

Page 8

Basic Optics System Experiment 1: Color Addition

Part 2: Observing Colored Ink Under Colored Light

Procedure

1. While you look away, have your partner draw two lines—one red and one

black—on a sheet of white paper. One of the lines should be labeled A, and the other B, but you should not know which is which.

Before you look at the paper, have your partner turn off the room lights and cover the red and green bars so the paper is illuminated only with blue light.

Now look. What colors do the two lines appear to be? Do they appear to be different colors? Record your observations in Table 1.2.

Finally, observe the lines under white light and record their actual colors in Table

1.2.

2. Repeat step 1, but this time have your partner draw lines using blue and black ink

(labeled C and D), and observe them under red light.

3. For Trial 2, switch roles and repeat steps 1 and 2 with your partner observing

lines that you have drawn. Record the results in Table 1.2. (For this trial, you may try to trick your partner by drawing both lines the same color—both red or both black, for instance.)

Table 1.2: Colored Ink Observed Under Colored Light

Trial 1: Name of observer: ______________________________________

Color of Light Line Apparent Color of Ink Do they look different? Actual Color of Ink

Blue Light

Red Light

Trial 2: Name of observer: ______________________________________

Color of Light Line Apparent Color of Ink Do they look different? Actual Color of Ink

Blue Light

Red Light

4. Look at red and black lines under red light. Which line is easier to see?

_________________________

Questions

1. What makes red ink appear red? When red ink is illumined by blue light, is most

of the light absorbed or reflected?

2. When illumined with red light, why is red ink on white paper more difficult to

see than black ink?

Page 9

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 2: Prism

Experiment 2: Prism

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System

Light Source

Rhombus from Ray Optics Kit

Blank white paper

Purpose

Incident ray

The purpose of this experiment is to show how a prism separates white light into its component colors and to show that different colors are refracted at different angles through a prism.

Theory

When a monochromatic light ray crosses from one medium (such as air) to another (such as acrylic), it is refracted. According to Snell’s Law,

sin θ1 = n2sin θ

Figure 2.1: Refraction of Light

the angle of refraction (θ2) depends on the angle of incidence (θ1) and the indices of refraction of both media (n

and n2), as shown in Figure 2.1. Because the index of

refraction for light varies with the frequency of the light, white light that enters the material (at an angle other than 0°) will separate into its component colors as each frequency is bent a different amount.

The rhombus is made of acrylic which has an index of refraction of 1.497 for light of wavelength 486 nm in a vacuum (blue light), 1.491 for wavelength 589 nm (yellow), and 1.489 for wavelength 651 nm (red). In general for visible light, index of refraction increases with increasing frequency.

Normal to surface

Surface

Refracted ray

> n

)

Procedure

1. Place the light source in ray-box mode on a sheet of blank white paper. Turn the

wheel to select a single white ray.

Color

spectrum

Single white ray

Normal to surface

Figure 2.2

2. Position the rhombus as shown in Figure 2.2. The acute-angled end of the rhom-

bus is used as a prism in this experiment. Keep the ray near the point of the rhombus for maximum transmission of the light.

Page 10

Basic Optics System Experiment 2: Prism

3. Rotate the rhombus until the angle (θ) of the emerging ray is as large as possible

and the ray separates into colors.

(a) What colors do you see? In what order are they?

(b) Which color is refracted at the largest angle?

dependence of the index of refraction for acrylic, which color is predicted to refract at the largest angle?

4. Without repositioning the light source, turn the wheel to select the three primary

color rays. The colored rays should enter rhombus at the same angle that the white ray did. Do the colored rays emerge from the rhombus parallel to each other? Why or why not?

Page 11

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 3: Reflection

Experiment 3: Reflection

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System

Light Source

Mirror from Ray Optics Kit

Other Required Equipment

Drawing compass

Protractor

Metric ruler

White paper

Purpose

In this experiment, you will study how rays are reflected from different types of mirrors. You will measure the focal length and determine the radius of curvature of a concave mirror and a convex mirror.

Part 1: Plane Mirror

Procedure

1. Place the light source in ray-box mode on a blank sheet of

white paper. Turn the wheel to select a single ray.

2. Place the mirror on the paper. Position the plane (flat) surface

of the mirror in the path of the incident ray at an angle that allows you to clearly see the incident and reflected rays.

3. On the paper, trace and label the surface of the plane mirror

and the incident and reflected rays. Indicate the incoming and the outgoing rays with arrows in the appropriate directions.

4. Remove the light source and mirror from the paper. On the

paper, draw the normal to the surface (as in Figure 3.1).

5. Measure the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection. Measure these angles

from the normal. Record the angles in the first row Table 3.1.

6. Repeat steps 1–5 with a different angle of incidence. Repeat the procedure again

to complete Table 3.1 with three different angles of incidence.

Table 3.1: Plane Mirror Results

Normal to

surface

Incident ray

Reflected ray

Figure 3.1

Angle of Incidence Angle of Reflection

7. Turn the wheel on the light source to select the three primary color rays. Shine

the colored rays at an angle to the plane mirror. Mark the position of the surface of the plane mirror and trace the incident and reflected rays. Indicate the colors of

Page 12

Basic Optics System Experiment 3: Reflection

the incoming and the outgoing rays and mark them with arrows in the appropriate directions.

Questions

1. What is the relationship between the angles of incidence and reflection?

2. Are the three colored rays reversed left-to-right by the plane mirror?

Part 2: Cylindrical Mirrors

Theory

mirror

A concave cylindrical mirror focuses incoming parallel rays at its focal point. The focal length ( f ) is the distance from the focal point to the center of the mirror surface. The radius of curvature (R) of the mirror is twice the focal length. See Figure 3.2.

focal point

Procedure

1. Turn the wheel on the light source to select five parallel rays. Shine

the rays straight into the concave mirror so that the light is reflected back toward the ray box (see Figure 3.3). Trace the surface of the mirror and the incident and reflected rays. Indicate the incoming and the outgoing rays with arrows in the appropriate directions. (You can now remove the light source and mirror from the paper.)

2. The place where the five reflected rays cross each other is the focal

point of the mirror. Mark the focal point.

Incident rays

3. Measure the focal length from the center of the concave mirror sur-

face (where the middle ray hit the mirror) to the focal point. Record the result in Table 3.2.

4. Use a compass to draw a circle that matches the curvature of the

mirror (you will have to make several tries with the compass set to different widths before you find the right one). Measure the radius of curvature and record it in Table 3.2.

5. Repeat steps 1–4 for the convex mirror. Note that in step 3, the reflected rays will

diverge, and they will not cross. Use a ruler to extend the reflected rays back behind the mirror’s surface. The focal point is where these extended rays cross.

Table 3.2: Cylindrical Mirror Results

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.3

Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

Focal Length

Radius of Curvature (deter mined using compass)

Questions

1. What is the relationship between the focal length of a cylindrical mirror and its

radius of curvature? Do your results confirm your answer?

2. What is the radius of curvature of a plane mirror?

Page 13

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 4: Snell’s Law

Experiment 4: Snell’s Law

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System

Light Source

Rhombus from Ray Optics Kit

Other Required Equipment

Protractor

White paper

Purpose

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the index of refraction of the acrylic rhombus. For rays entering the rhombus, you will measure the angles of incidence and refraction and use Snell’s Law to calculate the index of refraction.

Theory

For light crossing the boundary between two transparent materials, Snell’s Law states

sin θ1 = n2sin θ

where θ1 is the angle of incidence, θ2 is the angle of refraction, and n

and n2 are the respective indices of

refraction of the materials (see Figure 4.1).

Procedure

1. Place the light source in ray-box mode on a sheet of

white paper. Turn the wheel to select a single ray.

2. Place the rhombus on the paper and position it so

the ray passes through the parallel sides as shown in Figure 4.2.

Incident ray

Figure 4.1

Normal to surface

Surface

Refracted ray

> n

)

3. Mark the position of the parallel surfaces of the

Figure 4.2

rhombus and trace the incident and transmitted rays. Indicate the incoming and the outgoing rays with arrows in the appropriate directions. Carefully mark where the rays enter and leave the rhombus.

4. Remove the rhombus and draw a line on the paper connecting the points where

the rays entered and left the rhombus. This line represents the ray inside the rhombus.

5. Choose either the point where the ray enters the rhombus or the point where the

ray leaves the rhombus. At this point, draw the normal to the surface.

6. Measure the angle of incidence (θ

) and the angle of refraction with a protractor.

Both of these angles should be measured from the normal. Record the angles in the first row of Table 4.1.

Page 14

Basic Optics System Experiment 4: Snell’s Law

7. On a new sheet of paper, repeat steps 2–6 with a different angle of incidence.

Repeat these steps again with a third angle of incidence. The first two columns of Table 4.1 should now be filled.

Table 4.1: Data and Results

Angle of Incidence Angle of Refraction Calculated index of refraction of

acrylic

Average:

Analysis

1. For each row of Table 4.1, use Snell’s Law to calculate the index of refraction,

assuming the index of refraction of air is 1.0.

2. Average the three values of the index of refraction. Compare the average to the

accepted value (n = 1.5) by calculating the percent difference.

Question

What is the angle of the ray that leaves the rhombus relative to the ray that enters it?

Page 15

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 5: Total Internal Reflection

Experiment 5: Total Internal Reflection

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System

Light Source

Rhombus from Ray Optics Kit

Other Required Equipment

Protractor

White paper

Purpose

In this experiment, you will determine the critical angle at which total internal reflection occurs in the acrylic rhombus and confirm your result using Snell’s Law.

Theory

For light crossing the boundary between two transparent materials, Snell’s Law states

sin θ1 = n2sin θ

where θ1 is the angle of incidence, θ2 is the angle of refraction, and n

and n2 are the respective indices of

refraction of the materials (see Figure 5.1).

In this experiment, you will study a ray as it passes out of the rhombus, from acrylic (n = 1.5) to air (n

If the incident angle (θ angle (θ

), there is no refracted ray and total internal

reflection occurs. If θ ray (θ

) is 90°, as in Figure 5.2.

) is greater than the critical

= θc, the angle of the refracted

In this case, Snell’s Law states:

n sin θc = 1 sin 90°

Solving for the sine of critical angle gives:

sin θ

---=

air

=1).

Incident ray

= 1

air

Figure 5.1

90°

Reflected ray

Surface

Refracted ray

> n

Reflected ray

Refracted ray

)

Figure 5.2

Page 16

Basic Optics System Experiment 5: Total Internal Reflection

point

Re po

Procedure

1. Place the light source in ray-box mode on a sheet of white paper. Turn the

wheel to select a single ray.

2. Position the rhombus as shown in Figure 5.3, with the ray entering the

rhombus at least 2 cm from the tip.

3. Rotate

the rhombus until the emerging ray just barely disappears. Just as

it disappears, the ray separates into colors. The rhombus is correctly positioned if the red has just disappeared.

4. Mark the surfaces of the rhombus. Mark exactly the point on the surface

where the ray is internally reflected. Also mark the entrance point of the incident ray and the exit point of the reflected ray.

5. Remove the rhombus and draw the rays that are incident upon and

reflected from the inside surface of the rhombus. See Figure 5.4. Measure the angle between these rays using a protractor. (Extend these rays to make the protractor easier to use.) Note that this angle is twice the critical angle because the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Record the critical angle here:

= _______ (experimental)

Reflected

ray

Incident

ray

Exit point

Entrance point

Figure 5.3

Refracted Ray

Reflection point

6. Calculate the critical angle using Snell’s Law and the given index of

refraction for Acrylic (n = 1.5). Record the theoretical value here:

= _______ (theoretical)

7. Calculate the percent difference between the measured and theoretical values:

% difference = _______

Questions

1. How does the brightness of the internally reflected ray change when the incident

angle changes from less than θ

2. Is the critical angle greater for red light or violet light? What does this tell you

about the index of refraction?

to greater than θc?

Figure 5.4

Page 17

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 6: Convex and Concave Lenses

Experiment 6: Convex and Concave Lenses

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System

Light Source

Convex Lens from Ray Optics Kit

Concave Lens from Ray Optics Kit

Other Required Equipment

Metric ruler

Purpose

In this experiment, you will explore the difference between convex and concave lenses and determine their focal lengths.

Theory

When parallel light rays pass through a thin lens, they emerge either converging or diverging. The point where the converging rays (or their extensions) cross is the focal point of the lens. The focal length of the lens is the distance from the center of the lens to the focal point. If the rays diverge, the focal length is negative.

Procedure

1. Place the light source in ray-box mode on a white sheet of paper. Turn the wheel

to select three parallel rays. Shine the rays straight into the convex lens (see Figure 6.1).

Note: The lenses used in this experiment have one flat edge. Place the flat edge on the paper so the lens stands stably without rocking.

2. Trace around the surface of the lens and trace the incident and transmitted rays.

Indicate the incoming and the outgoing rays with arrows in the appropriate directions.

3. The point where the outgoing rays cross is the focal point of the lens. Measure

the focal length from the center of the lens to the focal point. Record the result in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Results

Convex Lens Concave Lens

Focal Length

4. Repeat the procedure with the concave lens. Note that in step 3, the rays leaving

the lens are diverging and do not cross. Use a ruler to extend the outgoing rays straight back through the lens. The focal point is where these extended rays cross. (Remember to record the focal length as a negative number.)

Incoming rays

Convex lens

Figure 6.1

Page 18

Basic Optics System Experiment 6: Convex and Concave Lenses

5. Nest the convex and concave lenses together and place them in the path of the

parallel rays (see Figure 6.2). Trace the rays. Are the outgoing rays converging, diverging or parallel? What does this tell you about the relationship between the focal lengths of these two lenses?

6. Slide the convex and concave lenses apart by a few centimeters and observe the

effect. Then reverse the order of the lenses. Trace at least one pattern of this type. What is the effect of changing the distance between the lenses? What is the effect of reversing their positions?

Figure 6.2

Page 19

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 7: Hollow Lens

Experiment 7: Hollow Lens

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System

Light Source

Hollow Lens from Ray Optics Kit

Box from Ray Optics Kit (with lenses and foam insert removed)

White Plastic Sheet from Ray Optics Kit

Other Equipment

Water

Paper towels

White paper

Small weight (to stop lens from floating)

Eye-dropper (optional, for removing water from the hollow lens)

Purpose

In this experiment you will explore how the properties of a lens are related to its shape, its index of refraction, and the index of refraction of the surrounding medium.

Background

A conventional lens is made of a material whose index of refraction is higher than that of the surrounding medium. For instance, the lenses in a pair of eyeglasses are usually made from glass or plastic with an index of refraction of 1.5 or higher, while the air surrounding the lenses has an index of refraction of 1.0. However, a lens can also have a lower index of refraction than the surrounding medium, as is the case when a hollow lens is “filled with air” and surrounded by water. (The index of refraction of water is about 1.3.)

The hollow lens in this experiment has three sections: a plano-concave section and two plano-convex sections. We will refer to these as sections 1, 2, and 3 (see Figure 7.1).

You will determine whether each section acts as a converging or diverging lens when it is a) filled with water and surrounded by air and b) filled with air and surrounded by water.

Procedure

Figure 7.1: The hollow lens

1. Before you test the hollow lens, make some predictions: For every configuration

in Table 7.1, predict whether incoming parallel rays will converge or diverge after passing through the lens. Record your predictions in the table.

2. Place the light source in ray-box mode on a white sheet of paper. Turn the wheel

to select five parallel rays.

3. Fill section 1 with water and place the lens in front of the light source so the par-

allel rays enter it through the flat side. Do the rays converge or diverge after passing through the lens? Record your observation in Table 7.1.

Page 20

Basic Optics System Experiment 7: Hollow Lens

Repeat this step with water in different section of the lens to complete the first four rows of Table 7.1.

Table 7.1: Predictions and Observations

Lens

surrounded by:

Air

Water

Section 1

filled with:

Water Air Air

Air Water Air

Air Air Water

Water Air Water

Air Water Water

Water Air Water

Water Wa ter Air

Section 2

filled with:

Section 3

filled with:

Prediction

(converging or diverging)

4. Put the white plastic sheet in the transparent ray-optics box. Put the hollow lens

in the box on top of the sheet as shown in Figure 7.2. Place a small weight on top of the lens to stop it from floating. Position the light source outside of the box so that the rays enter the hollow lens through the flat side.

Box

Hollow lens

Incident rays

Observation

(converging or diverging)

Figure 7.2: Hollow lens set up for testing surrounded by water

5. Fill the box with water to just below the top of the lens. Fill sections 2 and 3 of

the lens with water (leaving section 1 “filled” with air). Record your observation in Table 7.1.

Repeat this step with air in different section of the lens to complete Table 7.1.

Questions

1. Under what conditions is a plano-convex lens converging? Under what condi-

tions is it diverging?

2. If a plano-concave lens of an unknown material is a diverging lens when sur-

rounded by air, is it possible to know whether the lens will be converging or diverging when placed in water? Explain.

Page 21

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 8: Lensmaker’s Equation

Experiment 8: Lensmaker’s Equation

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System

Light Source

Concave Lens from Ray Optics Kit

Other Required Equipment

Metric ruler

Purpose

In this experiment you will determine the focal length of a concave lens in two ways: a) by direct measurement using ray tracing and b) by measuring the radius of curva- ture and using the lensmaker’s equation.

Theory

The lensmaker’s equation is used to calculate the focal length (in air or a vacuum), f, of a lens based on the radii of curvature of its surfaces (R refraction (n) of the lens material:

and R2) and the index of

(eq. 8.1)

--- n 1–()

⎛⎞

------

------–

⎜⎟

⎝⎠

In this notation, R is positive for a convex surface (as viewed from outside the lens) and R is negative for a concave surface (as in Figure 8.1).

Double

Concave

Lens

Figure 8.1

Procedure

1. Place the light source in ray-box mode on a white sheet of paper. Turn the wheel

to select three parallel rays. Shine the rays straight into the convex lens (see Figure 8.2).

Note: The lens has one flat edge. Place the flat edge on the paper so the lens stands stably without rocking.

Incoming rays

Concave lens

Figure 8.2

Page 22

Basic Optics System Experiment 8: Lensmaker’s Equation

2. Trace around the surface of the lens and trace the incident and transmitted rays.

Indicate the incoming and the outgoing rays with arrows in the appropriate directions.

3. Remove the lens. To measure the focal length, use a ruler to extend the outgoing

diverging rays straight back through the lens. The focal point is where these extended rays cross. Measure the distance from the center of the lens to the focal point. Record the result as a negative value:

f = _______________ (measured directly)

4. To determine the radius of curvature, put the concave lens back in the path

of the rays and observe the faint reflected rays off the first surface of the lens. The front of the lens can be treated as a concave mirror having a

1/2 R

radius of curvature equal to twice the focal length of the effective mirror (see Figure 8.3).

Trace the surface of the lens and mark the point where the central ray hits the surface. Block the central ray and mark the point where the two outer rays cross. Measure the distance from the lens surface to the point where the reflected rays cross. The radius of curvature is twice this distance. Record the radius of curvature:

R = _______________

5. For this lens, it is not necessary to measure the curvature of both sides because

they are equal (R

= R2 = R). Calculate the focal length of the lens using the lens-

maker’s equation (Equation 8.1). The index of refraction is 1.5 for the acrylic lens. Remember that a concave surface has a negative radius of curvature.

f = _______________ (calculated)

6. Calculate the percent difference between the two values of f from step 3 and

step 5:

% difference = _______________

Concave lens

Figure 8.3: Reflected rays from

the lens surface

Page 23

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 9: Apparent Depth

Experiment 9: Apparent Depth

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System

Light Source

Rhombus from Ray Optics Kit

Convex Lens from Ray Optics Kit

Mirror from Ray Optics Kit (used to block rays)

Other Required Equipment

Metric ruler

White paper

Very sharp pencil

Purpose

In this experiment, you will use two different methods to measure the apparent depth of the acrylic rhombus. You will also determine the index of refraction of acrylic by comparing the apparent depth to the actual depth.

Theory

Light rays originating from the bottom surface of a block of transparent material refract at the top surface as the rays emerge from the material into the air (see Figure 9.1). When viewed from above, the apparent depth, d, of the bottom sur-

air

n > 1

= 1

face of the block is less than the actual thickness, t, of the block. The apparent depth is given by

(eq. 9.1) d = t /n

where n is the index of refraction of the material.

Part 1: Parallax Method

Background

Place this page flat on the table in front of you. Hold a pencil horizontally a few centimeters above the paper. With one eye closed or covered, look down at the pencil and move your head side to side (without moving the pencil). Notice how the pencil appears to move relative to the words printed on the paper; this phenomenon is known as parallax. Now hold the tip of the pencil on the paper and check for parallax. When there is no parallax between to objects, they are at the same distance from you.

Figure 9.1

top

bottom

Procedure

1. Place a blank sheet of paper flat on the table. Use a straight edge and pencil to

draw a vertical line on the paper. Place the rhombus on the paper over the line as shown in Figure 9.2.

Page 24

Basic Optics System Experiment 9: Apparent Depth

Paper

Rhombus

Line

Figure 9.2

2. With both eyes, look down through the top of the rhombus. Does the line viewed

through the rhombus appear to be closer? Close or cover one eye, and move your head side to side. Do you see parallax between the line viewed through the rhombus and the line viewed directly?

3. In this step, you will hold a pencil near the rhombus to determine the position of

the apparent line. When the pencil and the apparent line are at the same distance from your eye, there will be no parallax between them.

While looking down through the rhombus (with one eye), hold a very sharp pencil as shown in Figure 9.3 so it appears to be lined up with the line inside the rhombus. Move your head left and right to check for parallax. Move the pencil up or down and check again. When there is no parallax, mark that point. (Hold the rhombus with your free hand, press the pencil tip gently against the side of the rhombus and twist the pencil to make a light mark. Erase the mark after you have finished this experiment.)

Analysis

Look

down

Move eye

side to side

Hold pencil

still

Figure 9.3

1. Measure the distance from the top of the rhombus to your pencil mark. Record

this apparent depth, d, in the first row of Table 9.1.

2. Measure the thickness, t, of the rhombus and record it in Table 9.1.

3. Use Equation 9.1 to calculate the index of refraction and record your result in

Table 9.1.

Table 9.1: Results

dtn

Part 1: Paral lax method

Part 2: Ray-tracing method

Part 2: Ray-tracing Method

Procedure

1. Place the light source in ray-box mode on a white sheet of paper. Turn the wheel

to select five parallel rays. Shine the rays straight into the convex lens. Place the mirror on its edge between the ray box and the lens so that it blocks the middle three rays, leaving only the outside two rays (as in Figure 9.4, but do not put the rhombus there yet).

Note: The lens has one flat edge. Place the flat edge on the paper so the lens stands stably without rocking.

Page 25

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 9: Apparent Depth

2. Mark the place on the paper where the two rays cross each other.

3. Position the rhombus as shown in Figure 9.4. The “bottom” surface of the

rhombus must be exactly at the point where the two rays cross. The crossed rays simulate rays that originate at an object on the “bottom” of the block.

4. Trace the rhombus and trace the rays diverging from the “top” surface.

5. Remove the rhombus and light source. Trace the diverging rays back into the

rhombus. The point where these rays cross (inside the rhombus) is the apparent position of the “bottom” of the rhombus when viewed through the “top”.

Analysis

1. Measure the apparent depth, d, and record it in Table 9.1.

2. Use Equation 9.1 to calculate the index of refraction and record your result

in Table 9.1.

Questions

1. Of the two methods that you used to determine d, which one is more precise?

Explain.

2. The accepted value of the index of refraction of acrylic is n = 1.49. What was the

percent difference between the accepted value and each of your two results?

top surface

bottom surface

Convex lens

Mirror on edge

Figure 9.4

Page 26

Basic Optics System Experiment 9: Apparent Depth

Page 27

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 10: Reversibility

NORMAL

NOR

COMPONENT

NORMAL

BASIC OPTICS

RAY TABLE

OS-8465

Experiment 10: Reversibility

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System

Ray Table

D-shaped Lens

Light Source

Purpose

In Trial 1 of this experiment, you will determine the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction for light passing from air into a more optically dense medium (the acrylic of the D-shaped lens).

In Trial 2, you will determine whether the same relationship holds between the angles of incidence and refraction for light passing out of a more optically dense medium back into air. That is to say, if the light is traveling in the opposite direction through the lens, is the law of refraction the same or different? By comparing the results of both trials, you will find the answer to this question.

In Figure 10.1, notice that refraction occurs only at the flat surface of the D-shaped lens, not at the curved surface.

Trial 1 Trial 2

Angle of

incidence

NORMAL

COMPONENT

OS-8465

COMPONENT

BASIC OPTICS

RAY TABLE

NORMAL

Angle of

incidence

COMPONENT

NORMAL

OS-8465

COMPONENT

RAY TABLE

BASIC OPTICS

Angle of

refraction

Figure 10.1: Refraction of light passing into the lens (Trial 1) and out of the lens (Trial 2)

Setup

1. Place the light source in ray-box mode on a

flat tabletop. Turn the wheel to select a single ray.

2. Put the ray table in front of the light source so

the ray from the light source crosses the exact center of the ray table.

3. Put the D-shaped lens on the ray table exactly

centered in the marked outline.

Light Source Ray Table

NORMAL

OS-8465

COMPONENT

Single

Ray

Figure 10.2: Initial setup for Trial 1

BASIC OPTICS

RAY TABLE

NORMAL

Page 28

Basic Optics System Experiment 10: Reversibility

Record Data

Trial 1

1. Turn the ray table so

the incoming ray enters the lens through the flat sur- face (see Figure

10.2).

2. Rotate the ray table

to set the angle of incidence to each of the values listed in the first column of Table 10.1. For each angle of incidence (θ

), observe the

corresponding angle of refraction (θ and record it in the second column of the table.

Trial 2

Table 10.1: Data

Trial 1

Ray Incident on Flat Surface

Angle of Incidence

0°

10°

20°

30°

40°

50°

60°

70°

80°

)

Angle of Refraction

Ray Incident on Curved Surface

Angle of Incidence

Tri al 2

Angle of Refraction

1. Copy all of the values in the second column to the third column of the table. (In

other words, the angles of refraction that you observe in Trial 1 will be the angles of incidence that you use in Trial 2.)

2. Turn the ray table so the incoming ray enters the lens through the curved surface.

3. For the angles of incidence (θ

observe the corresponding angles of refraction (θ

) that you wrote in the third column of the table,

) and record them in the fourth

column.

Analysis

1. Using your values for θi1 and θr1 and Snell’s Law (Equation 10.1), determine the

index of refraction of acrylic (n is 1.0.

(eq. 10.1)

acrylic

2. Determine n

acrylic

air

θi1()sin n

= ___________ (from θi1 and θr1)

again, this time using your values of θi2 and θr2.

acrylic

= ___________ (from θi2 and θr2)

). Assume the index of refraction of air (n

acrylic

θr1()sin=

air

)

Questions

1. Is the law of refraction the same for light rays going in either direction between

the two media?

2. Does the principle of optical reversibility hold for reflection as well as refraction?

Explain.

Page 29

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 11: Dispersion

COMPONENT

NORMAL

BASIC OPTICS

RAY TABLE

OS-8465

Experiment 11: Dispersion

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System

Ray Table

D-shaped Lens

Light Source

Purpose

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the index of refraction of acrylic at two different wavelengths.

Theory

When light crosses the boundary between two transparent media, it is refracted. Snell’s Law expresses the relationship between index of refraction of the first medium (n

), the index of refraction of the second medium (n2), the angle of incidence (θ1),

and the angle of refraction (θ

(eq. 11.1)

n1θ1sin n2θ2sin=

Incident ray

acrylic

air

Refracted ray

> n

)

Figure 11.1

We can assume the index of refraction of air (n2 in this experiment) is always equal to

1.0. However, the index of refraction of acrylic (n

) depends on the wavelength, or

color, of the light. Therefore, the different wavelengths present in an incident ray of white light will be refracted at different angles. The wavelength dependence of a material’s index of refraction is known as dispersion.

Setup

Light Source Ray Table

1. Place the light source in ray-box mode on a

flat tabletop. Turn the wheel to select a single ray.

2. Put the ray table in front of the light source so

the ray from the light source crosses the exact center of the ray table (see Figure 11.2).

3. Put the acrylic D-shaped lens on the ray table

in the marked outline. Turn the ray table so

Single

Ray

Figure 11.2

COMPONENT

NORMAL

OS-8465

NORMAL

RAY TABLE

BASIC OPTICS

Page 30

Basic Optics System Experiment 11: Dispersion

the ray enters the lens through the curved surface, and the angle of incidence is 0°.

Procedure

1. Hold a piece of white paper vertically near the edge of the Ray Table so the out-

going ray is visible on the paper.

2. Slowly rotate the ray table to increase the angle of incidence. Notice that the ray

is refracted only at the flat surface of the lens, not at the curved surface. As you continue to increase the angle of incidence, watch the refracted light on the paper.

Analysis

1. At what angle of refraction do you begin to notice color separation in the

refracted light?

2. At what angle of refraction does the maximum color separation occur?

3. What colors are present in the refracted ray? (Write them in the order of mini-

mum to maximum angle of refraction.)

4. Use Snell’s Law (Equation 11.1) to calculate the index of refraction of acrylic for

red light (n

) and the index of refraction for blue light (n

red

blue

Page 31

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 12: Focal Length and Magnification of a Thin Lens

Experiment 12: Focal Length and Magnification of a Thin Lens

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System

Light Source

Bench

Converging lens of unknown focal length

Screen

Other Equipment

Metric ruler

Optics Caliper (optional, for measuring image sizes), PASCO part OS-8468

Instructors: see note on page 51.

Purpose

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the focal length of a thin lens, and to measure the magnification for a certain combination of object and image distances.

Theory

For a thin lens:

(eq. 12.1)

where f is focal length, d

is the distance between the object and the lens, and di is the

---

distance between the image and the lens. By measuring d

-----

----+=

and di the focal length can

be determined.

Magnification, M, is the ratio of image size to object size. If the image is inverted, M is negative.

Part I: Object at Infinity

In this part, you will determine the focal length of the lens by making a single measurement of d

with .

do∞≅

Procedure

1. Hold the lens in one hand and the screen in the other hand. Focus the image of a

distant bright object (such as a window or lamp across the room) on the screen.

2. Have your partner measure the distance from the lens to the screen. This is the

image distance, d

= _______________

Analysis

1. As do approaches infinity, what does 1/do approach?

Page 32

Basic Optics System Experiment 12: Focal Length and Magnification of a Thin Lens

2. Use the Thin Lens Formula (Equation 12.1) to calculate the focal length.

f = _______________

Part II: Object Closer Than Infinity

In this part, you will determine the focal length by measuring several pairs of object and image distances and plotting 1/d

Light source Lens

versus 1/di.

1 m

Figure 12.1

Screen

Procedure

1. Place the light source and the screen on the optics bench 1 m apart with the light

source’s crossed arrow object toward the screen. Place the lens between them (see Figure 12.1).

2. Starting with the lens close to the screen, slide the lens away from the screen to a

position where a clear image of the crossed-arrow object is formed on the screen. Measure the image distance and the object distance. Record these measurements (and all measurements from the following steps) in Table 12.1.

3. Measure the object size and the image size for this position of the lens.

4. Without moving the screen or the light source, move the lens to a second position

where the image is in focus. Measure the image distance and the object distance.

5. Measure the object size and image size for this position also. Note that you will

not see the entire crossed-arrow pattern. Instead, measure the image and object sizes as the distance between two index marks on the pattern (see Figure 12.2 for example).

6. Repeat steps 2 and 4 with light source-to-screen distances of 90 cm, 80 cm, 70

cm, 60 cm, and 50 cm. For each light source-to-screen distance, find two lens positions where clear images are formed. (You don’t need to measure image and object sizes.).

Analysis Part A: Focal Length

1. Calculate 1/do and 1/di for all 12 rows in Table 12.1.

Measure object or image

size between two

pattern features

2. Plot 1/d

versus 1/di and find the best-fit line (linear fit). This will give a straight

line with the x- and y-intercepts equal to 1/f. Record the intercepts (including units) here:

y-intercept = 1/f = _______________

x-intercept = 1/f = _______________

Note: You can plot the data and find the best-fit line by hand on paper or on a computer.

Figure 12.2

Page 33

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 12: Focal Length and Magnification of a Thin Lens

Table 12.1: Image and Object Distances

Distance from

light source to

screen

100 cm

90 cm

80 cm

70 cm

60 cm

50 cm

1/d

Image Size Object Size

3. For each intercept, calculate a value of f and record it in Table 12.2.

4. Find the percent difference between these two values of f and record them in

Table 12.2.

5. Average these two values of f. Find the percent difference between this average

and the focal length that you found in Part I. Record these data in Table 12.2.

Table 12.2: Focal Length

Result from x-intercept

Result from y-intercept

% difference between results from intercepts

Average of results from intercepts

Result from Part I

% difference between Average of results from intercepts and result from Part I

Analysis Part B: Magnification

1. For the first two data points only (the first two lines of Table 12.2), use image and

object distances to calculate the magnification, M, at each position of the lens. Record the results in Table 12.3.

(eq. 12.2)

⎛⎞

-----

–=

⎜⎟

⎝⎠

Page 34

Basic Optics System Experiment 12: Focal Length and Magnification of a Thin Lens

2. Calculate the absolute value of M (for each of the two lens positions) using your

measurements of the image size and object size. Record the results in Table 12.3.

image size

(eq. 12.3)

-------------------------= object size

3. Calculate the percent differences between the absolute values of M found using

the two methods. Record the results in Table 12.3.

Table 12.3: Magnification

Point 1 Point 2

calculated from image and object distances

calculated from image and object sizes

% difference

Questions

1. Is the image formed by the lens upright or inverted?

2. Is the image real or virtual? How do you know?

3. Explain why, for a given screen-to-object distance, there are two lens positions

where a clear image forms.

4. By looking at the image, how can you tell that the magnification is negative?

5. You made three separate determinations of f (by measuring it directly with a dis-

tant object, from the x-intercept of your graph, and from the y-intercept). Where these three values equal? If they were not, what might account for the variation?

Page 35

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 13: Telescope

Experiment 13: Telescope

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System

Bench

2 Convex Lenses (+100 mm and +200 mm)

Screen

Paper grid pattern (see page 45), or a 14 × 16 grid of 1 cm squares

Purpose

In this experiment, you will construct a telescope and determine its magnification.

Theory

-d

Object

Image

Lens

+200 mm

Figure 13.1

An astronomical telescope consists of two convex lenses. The astronomical telescope in this experiment will form an image in the same place as the object (see Figure

13.1).

The lenses are thin compared to the other distances involved, which allows the Thin Lens Formula to be used:

(eq. 13.1)

where f is focal length, d

---

is the distance between the object and the lens, and di is the

-----

----+=

distance between the image and the lens.

The magnification, M, of a two-lens system is equal to the product of the magnifications of the individual lenses:

di1–

(eq. 13.2)

1M2

⎛⎞

----------

⎜⎟

⎝⎠

⎛⎞

----------

⎜⎟ ⎝⎠

di2–

Eye

Lens

+100 mm

Set Up

1. Tape the paper grid pattern to the screen to serve as the object.

2. The +200 mm lens is the objective lens (the one closer to the object). The +100

mm lens is the eyepiece lens (the one closer to the eye). Place the lenses near one

Page 36

Basic Optics System Experiment 13: Telescope

end of the optics bench and place the screen on the other end (see Figure 13.2). Their exact positions do not matter yet.

Screen

Figure 13.2

Procedure

1. Put your eye close to the eyepiece lens and look through both lenses at the grid

pattern on the screen. Move the objective lens to bring the image into focus.

Screen

Objective

lens

Figure 13.3

Eyepiece

lens

+200 mm

objective lens

+100 mm eyepiece lens

Right eye

Left eye

2. In this step, you will adjust your telescope to make the image occur in the

same place as the object. To do this, you will look at both image and object at the same time and judge their relative positions by moving your head side to side. If the image and object are not in the same place, then they will appear to move relative to each other. This effect is known as parallax.

Open both eyes. Look with one eye through the lenses at the image and with the other eye past the lenses at the object (see Figure 13.3). The lines of the image (solid lines shown in Figure 13.4) will be superimposed on the lines of the object (shown as dotted lines in Figure 13.4). Move your head left and right or up and down by about a centimeter. As you move your head, the lines of the image may move relative to the lines of the object due to the parallax. Adjust the eyepiece lens to eliminate parallax. Do not move the objective lens. When there is no parallax, the lines in the center of the lens appear to be stuck to the object lines.

Note: You will probably have to adjust the eyepiece lens by no more than a few centimeters.

3. Record the positions of the lenses and screen in Table 13.1.

4. Estimate the magnification of your telescope by counting the number of object

squares that lie along one side of one image square. To do this, you must view the image through the telescope with one eye while looking directly at the object with the other eye. Remember that magnification is negative for an inverted image. Record the observed magnification in Table 13.1.

Lens Holder

Figure 13.4

Analysis

To calculate the magnification, complete the following steps and record the results in Table 13.1:

Page 37

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 13: Telescope

1. Measure do1, the distance from the object (paper pat-

tern on screen) to the objective lens.

2. Determine d

, the distance from the eyepiece lens to

the image. Since the image is in the plane of the object, this is equal to the distance between the eyepiece lens and the object (screen). Remember that the image distance for a virtual image is negative.

3. Calculate d

using do1 and the focal length of the

objective lens in the Thin Lens Formula (Equation

13.1).

4. Calculate d

by subtracting di1 from the distance

between the lenses.

5. Calculate the magnification using Equation 13.2.

6. Calculate the percent difference between the calcu-

lated magnification and the observed value.

Questions

1. Is the image inverted or upright?

Table 13.1: Results

Position of Objective Lens

Position of Eyepiece Lens

Position of Screen

Observed magnification

Calculated Magnification

Percent Difference

2. Is the image that you see through the telescope real or virtual?

Further Study

Image Formed by the Objective Lens

Where is the image formed by the objective lens? Is it real or virtual? Use a desk lamp to brightly illuminate the paper grid (or replace the screen with the light source’s crossed-arrow object). Hold a sheet of paper vertically where you think the image is. Do you see the image? Is it inverted or upright? Remove the sheet of paper and hold a pencil in the same place. Look through eyepiece lens; you will see two images, one of the pencil and one of the grid pattern. Are both images inverted? Use parallax to determine the location of the pencil image.

Object at Infinity

Remove the screen and look through the lenses at a distant object. Adjust the distance between the lenses to focus the telescope. Estimate the observed magnification.

Now calculate the magnification by taking the ratio of the focal lengths of the lenses. Compare the calculated magnification to the observed magnification.

How is the distance between the lenses related to their focal lengths?

Page 38

Basic Optics System Experiment 13: Telescope

Page 39

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 14: Microscope

Experiment 14: Microscope

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System

Bench

2 Convex Lenses (+100 mm and +200 mm)

Screen

Paper grid pattern (see page 45), or a 14 × 16 grid of 1 cm squares

Purpose

In this experiment, you will construct a microscope and determine its magnification.

Theory

Object

Image

Lens

+100 mm

Figure 14.1

Lens

+200 mm

A microscope magnifies an object that is close to the objective lens. The microscope in this experiment will form an image in the same place as the object (see Figure

14.1).

The lenses are thin compared to the other distances involved, which allows the Thin Lens Formula to be used:

(eq. 14.1)

where f is focal length, d

---

is the distance between the object and the lens, and di is the

-----

----+=

distance between the image and the lens.

The magnification, M, of a two-lens system is equal to the product of the magnifications of the individual lenses:

di1–

(eq. 14.2)

1M2

⎛⎞

----------

⎜⎟

⎝⎠

⎛⎞

----------

⎜⎟ ⎝⎠

di2–

Eye

Set Up

1. Tape the paper grid pattern to the screen to serve as the object.

2. The +100 mm lens is the objective lens (the one closer to the object). The +200

mm lens is the eyepiece lens (the one closer to the eye). Place the lenses near the

Page 40

Basic Optics System Experiment 14: Microscope

middle of the optics bench and place the screen near the end of the bench (see Figure 14.2).

+100 mm

objective lens

Screen

Figure 14.2

+200 mm eyepiece lens

Procedure

1. Put your eye close to the eyepiece lens and look through both lenses at the grid

pattern on the screen. Move the objective lens to bring the image into focus.

Screen

Objective

Figure 14.3

lens

Eyepiece

lens

Right eye

Left eye

2. In this step, you will adjust your microscope to make the image occur in the

Open both eyes. Look with one eye through the lenses at the image and with the other eye past the lenses at the object (see Figure 14.3). The lines of the image (solid lines shown in Figure 14.4) will be superimposed on the lines of the object (shown as dotted lines in Figure 14.4). Move your head left and right or up and down by about a centimeter. As you move your head, the lines of the image may move relative to the lines of the object due to the parallax. Adjust the eyepiece lens to eliminate parallax. Do not move the objective lens. When there is no parallax, the lines in the center of the lens appear to be stuck to the object lines.

Note: Even when there is no parallax, the lines may appear to move near the edges of the lens because of lens aberrations. Concentrate on the part of the image seen through the centers of the lenses. Be sure that the eye looking at the object (the left eye in Figure 14.3) is looking directly at the object and not through the objective lens.

3. Record the positions of the lenses and the object in Table 14.1.

4. Estimate the magnification of your microscope by counting the number of object

squares that lie along one side of one image square. To do this, you must view the image through the microscope with one eye while looking directly at the object with the other eye. Remember that magnification is negative for an inverted image. Record the observed magnification in Table 14.1.

Lens Holder

Figure 14.4

Page 41

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 14: Microscope

Analysis

To calculate the magnification complete the following steps and record the answers in Table 14.1:

1. Measure d

, the distance from the object (paper pat-

tern on screen) to the objective lens.

2. Determine d

, the distance from the eyepiece lens to

3. Calculate d

using do1 and the focal length of the

objective lens in the Thin Lens Formula (Equation

14.1).

4. Calculate d

by subtracting di1 from the distance

between the lenses.

5. Calculate the magnification using Equation 14.2.

6. Calculate the percent difference between the calcu-

lated magnification and the observed value.

Questions

1. Is the image inverted or upright?

Table 14.1: Results

Position of Objective Lens

Position of Eyepiece Lens

Position of Screen

Observed magnification

Calculated Magnification

Percent Difference

2. Is the image that you see through the microscope real or virtual?

Further Study

Image Formed by the Objective Lens

Where is the image formed by the objective lens? Is it real or virtual? Us a desk lamp to brightly illuminate the paper grid (or replace the screen with the light source’s crossed-arrow object). Hold a sheet of paper vertically where you think the image is. Do you see the image? Is it inverted or upright? Remove the sheet of paper and hold a pencil in the same place. Look through eyepiece lens; you will see two images, one of the pencil and one of the grid pattern. Are both images inverted? Use parallax to determine the location of the pencil image.

Increasing Magnification

While looking through your microscope, move the objective lens a few centimeters closer to the object. Which way do you have to move the eyepiece lens to keep the image in focus? How close can you move the objective lens and still see a clear image? (Make a pencil mark on the paper grid so you have something very small to focus on.) What is the theoretical limit to how close you can move the objective lens?

Page 42

Basic Optics System Experiment 14: Microscope

Page 43

Model No. OS-8515B Experiment 15: Shadows

Experiment 15: Shadows

Required Equipment from Basic Optics System (2 systems needed)

2 Benches

2 Light Sources

1 Screen

Purpose

The purpose of this experiment is to show the umbra (darker part) and the penumbra (lighter part) of the shadow.

Set Up

1. Place the two optics benches beside each other.

2. Put one light source on each bench with the point source (circular hole) facing

the other end of the bench.

3. Place the screen on one of the benches at the opposite end to the light sources.

Procedure

1. Plug in only one of the light sources.

2. Hold a pencil about 5 cm away from the screen so its shadow is cast on the

screen. Now turn the light source around so the crossed-arrow illuminates the pencil and screen. How does the shadow change?

3. Rotate the light source back to the point-source position. Plug in the second light

source. Make a sketch of the shadow of the pencil. Label the umbra and the penumbra.

4. Move the pencil away and toward the screen. How does the shadow change?

5. Block the light from each point source in succession to determine which part of

the shadow is caused by each light source. Indicate your observation on your sketch.

Page 44

Basic Optics System Experiment 15: Shadows

Page 45

Model No. OS-8515B Telescope and Microscope Test Pattern

Telescope and Microscope Test Pattern

Attach a copy of this pattern to the viewing screen for experiments 13 and 14.

1 cm grid

Page 46

Basic Optics System Telescope and Microscope Test Pattern

Page 47

Model No. OS-8515B Teacher’s Guide

Teacher’s Guide

Experiment 1: Color Addition

Note on procedure: Student’s expectation may differ from actual results. Encourage them to carefully

observe the resulting colors and describe them accurately.

Part 1, typical results:

Table 1.1: Results of Colored Light Addition

Colors Added Resulting Color

red + blue + green slightly bluish-white

red + blue pink-purple

red + green yellow-orange

green + blue bluish-green

Part 1, answers to questions: 1. Mixing light is not the same as mixing paint. The mixing of colored light is additive mixing; the mixing of paint is subtractive mixing. 2. In this experiment the mixture of red, green, and blue does not look pure white to most people. To produce white light, the three colors must be present in a specific ratios of intensities.

Part 2, typical results:

Table 1.2: Colored Ink Observed Under Colored Light

Color of Light Line Apparent Color of Ink Do they look different? Actual Color of Ink

Blue Light

Red Light

ABlack

Yes, slightly

BBlack Black

CBlack

Yes, slightly

DBlack Black

Red

Blue

(Step 4) Under red light, black ink is easier to see than red; red ink appears nearly the same color as white paper.

Part 2: answers to questions: 1. Red ink appears red because it reflects red light and absorbs other colors. Under blue light, red ink absorbs most of the visible light. 2. Under red light, red ink is difficult to see because both ink and paper reflect most of the visible light.

Experiment 2: Prism

Notes on procedure: (Step 3) (a) Red, Orange, Yellow, Green and Blue are seen in that order. (b) Blue is

refracted at the largest angle.(c) Blue is predicted to refract at the largest angle because its index of refraction is largest. (Step 4) When colored rays enter the prism, they do not emerge parallel to each other because of their differing indices of refraction.

Page 48

Basic Optics System Teacher’s Guide

Experiment 3: Reflection

Part 1, typical results:

Table 3.1: Plane Mirror Results

Angle of Incidence Angle of Reflection

9.0° 9.2°

16.8° 16.5°

19.0° 37.8°

Part 1, answers to questions: 1. The angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are equal. 2. The three colored rays are not reversed by the mirror.

Part 2, typical results:

Table 3.2: Cylindrical Mirror Results

Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

Focal Length 6.2 cm 6.4 cm

Radius of Curvature

(deter mined using compass)

13.3 cm 13.2 cm

The actual radius of both curved mirrors is about 12.5 cm.

Part 2, answers to questions: 1. The radius of curvature is twice the focal length for a cylindrical mirror. The typical experimental results confirm this. 2. The radius of curvature of a plane mirror approaches infinity.

Experiment 4: Snell’s Law

Typical results:

Table 4.1: Data and Results

Angle of Incidence Angle of Refraction Calculated index of refraction of

acrylic

38.0° 26.0° 1.40

51.2° 33.8° 1.40

22.0° 14.4° 1.51

Average:1.44 (4% deviation from accepted value)

Answer to question: The ray leaves the rhombus at the same angle it entered.

Experiment 5: Total Internal Reflection

Typical results:

(Step 5) Measured critical angle: θ (Step 6) Calculated critical angle: θ (Step 7) % Difference = 1.9%

Answers to questions: 1. The internally reflected ray becomes much brighter when the incident angle is larger than the critical angle. 2. The critical angle is greater for red light. This tells us that the index of refraction is smaller.

= 41.0°

= sin−1(1/n)=sin−1(1/1.5) = 41.8°

Page 49

Model No. OS-8515B Teacher’s Guide

Experiment 6: Convex and Concave Lenses

Typical results:

Table 6.1: Results

Convex Lens Concave Lens

Focal Length 13.75 cm -12.1 cm

(Step 5) When the lenses are nested together, parallel rays entering the lenses emerge nearly parallel; this tells us that the focal lengths are of approximately equal magnitude and opposite sign. (Step 6) By moving the lenses apart, the spacing of the rays can be changed, but they remain nearly parallel.

Experiment 7: Hollow Lens

Typical results:

Table 7.1: Predictions and Observations

Lens

surrounded by:

Air

Water

Section 1

filled with:

Water Air Air diverging

Air Water Air converging

Air Air Water converging

Water Air Water diverging

Air Water Water converging

Water Air Water diverging

Water Water Air diverging

Section 2

filled with:

Section 3

filled with:

Prediction

(converging or diverging)

Observation

(converging or diverging)

Answers to questions: 1. A plano-convex lens is converging when it has a higher index of refraction than

the surrounding medium. It is diverging when it has a lower index of refraction. 2. It is not possible to predict whether a plano-concave lens of unknown material will be diverging or converging under water because its index of refraction may be less than or greater than that of water.

Experiment 8: Lensmaker’s Equation

Typical results:

(Step 3) Measured focal length: f = −12.0 cm (Step 4) Measured focal distance of reflected rays: R/2 = 6.0 cm. Radius of curvature: R = −12.0 cm (Step 5) Calculated focal length:

n 1–()1 R⁄ 1 R⁄+()[]

1–

1.5 1–()1 12.0– cm()⁄ 112.0– cm()⁄+()[]

1–

12.1 cm–== =

(Step 6) % Difference: 0.8%

The actual radius of curvature or the lens is about −12.7 cm.

Page 50

Basic Optics System Teacher’s Guide

Experiment 9: Apparent Depth

Typical results:

Table 1.1: Results

dtn

Part 1: Paral lax method 2.12 cm 3.18 cm 1.50

Part 2: Ray-tracing method 2.23 cm 3.18 cm 1.43

Typical ray-tracing results are represented at 50% scale in Figure TG.1. The gray regions represent the actual light beams; the black lines and dots represent the student’s actual marks. Notice that this student traced along the edges of the light beams.

The actual thickness of the rhombus is t = 3.175 ± 0.025 cm. Based on the accepted value of n = 1.49, the theoretical apparent depth is d = 2.13.

2.23 cm

Figure TG.1

Answers to questions: 1. Of the two methods, the parallax method is the more precise. Using that method,

both d and t could be measured with a precision of less than 1 mm. Using the ray-tracing method, the points at which the rays crossed had a larger uncertainty due to the thickness of the light beams. 2. For the typical data above, the percent differences between the accepted and experimental values of n are 0.7% for Part 1 and 5% for Part 2.

Experiment 10: Reversibility

Typical results:

Table 10.1: Data

Tri al 1

Ray Incident on Flat Surface

Angle of Incidence

0° 0 0 1.0

10° 7.0 7.0 7.5

20° 13.5 13.5 19.5

30° 20.0 20.0 30.0

40° 25.5 25.5 39.0

50° 31.0 31.0 49.0

Angle of Refraction

Ray Incident on Curved Surface

Angle of Incidence

Trial 2

Angle of Refraction

60° 35.5 35.5 59.0

70° 39.5 39.5 70.0

80° 41.0 41.0 77.0

Page 51

Model No. OS-8515B Teacher’s Guide

Notes on analysis:

1. One way to find n

is to plot sin(θi1) versus sin(θr1)

acrylic

1.0

0.8

Trial 2 slope = 1.498 ± 0.009

and find the best-fit line. The slope of the line is equal to 1/n

2. For Trial 2, n

thus n

. Using this method and the data above,

acrylic

= 1.498 for Trial 1.

acrylic

is the slope of sin(θi2) versus sin(θr2),

acrylic

= 1.50.

acrylic

Answers to questions: 1. Yes, the law of refraction is the

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Trial 1 slope = 0.666 ± 0.013 1/slope = 1.50 ± 0.03

same for light going in either direction between the two media.

2. Yes, the principle of optical reversibility holds for both reflection and refraction, thus the law that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.

Experiment 11: Dispersion

Typical results from analysis:

1. Color separation was first noted at about 40°, although it may be noticeable before then depending on the

light in the room.

2. Maximum separation occurs at about 85°; beyond that the violet is totally internally reflected.

3. In order, the colors seen are: red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, violet (though not all colors may be

resolvable depending on the room light).

4. With an incident angle of 40°, the violet refracted at 76° and the red at 73°; therefore n

= 1.510

blue

= 1.488 and

red

Experiment 12: Focal Length and Magnification of a Thin Lens

Note on equipment: Provide students with the +100 mm mounted lens. Cover the focal length indicated on

the label. Other converging lenses will work, but you may have to modify the light source-to-screen values given in Table 12.1.

Part 1: For a distant object, 1/d distance of d

= f ≅ 10 cm.

approaches zero, therefore the image will form clearly with a lens-to-screen

Page 52

Basic Optics System Teacher’s Guide

Part 2: Typical results.

Table 12.1: Image and Object Distances

Distance from

light source to

screen

100 cm

90 cm

80 cm

70 cm

60 cm

50 cm

(cm)

88.5 11.5 0.0113 0.0870 5.5 mm 42 mm

11.0 89.0 0.0909 0.0112 81 mm 10 mm

78.3 11.7 0.0128 0.0855

11.3 78.7 0.0885 0.0127

68.0 12.0 0.0147 0.0833

11.5 68.5 0.0870 0.0146

57.7 12.3 0.0173 0.0813

11.9 58.1 0.0840 0.0172

47.1 12.9 0.0212 0.0775

12.3 47.7 0.0813 0.0210

36.0 14.0 0.0278 0.0714

13.4 36.6 0.0746 0.0273

y-intercept = 1/f = 0.0977 cm

x-intercept = 1/f = 0.103 cm

(cm)

-1

1/d

(cm

-1

)

1/d

-1

(cm

) Image Size Object Size

Table 12.2: Focal Length

Result from x-intercept 9.75 cm

Result from y-intercept 10.2 cm

% difference between results from intercepts 4.4%

Average of results from intercepts 9.98 cm

Result from Part I 10.0 cm

% difference between Average of results from intercepts and result from Part I 0.2%

Table 12.3: Magnification

Point 1 Point 2

calculated from image and object distances -0.130 -8.09

calculated from image and object sizes 0.13 8.1

% difference 0% 0.1%

Answers to questions: 1. The image if inverted. 2. The image is real because it can be viewed on a screen.

3. For a given object-to-image distance, the two object distance-image distance pairs are the inverse of each other, which demonstrates the reversibility of light through a lens. 4. The magnification is negative because the image is inverted. 5. The three determined values of f are unlikely to be exactly equal, primarily due to measurement error.

Page 53

Model No. OS-8515B Teacher’s Guide

Experiment 13: Telescope

Typical results:

Table 13.1: Results

Position of Objective Lens 63.4 cm

Position of Eyepiece Lens 102.2 cm

Position of Screen 0.0 cm

Observed magnification -5

Calculated Magnification -4.9

Percent Difference 2%

63.4 cm

-102.2 cm

29.2 cm

9.6 cm

Answers to questions: 1. The image is inverted. 2. It is a virtual image.

Further study, Image Formed by the Objective Lens: The objective lens forms a real, upright image;

to see it, hold a sheet of paper at distance d

from the objective. When a pencil is placed at this location, it’s vir-

tual image, viewed through the eyepiece lens, coincides with the virtual image of the grid pattern viewed through both lenses.

Further study, Object at Infinity: When adjusted for a distant object, the distance between the lenses is equal to the sum of the focal lengths.

Experiment 14: Microscope

Typical results:

Table 14.1: Results

Position of Objective Lens 20.9 cm

Position of Eyepiece Lens 54.9 cm

Position of Screen 0.0 cm

Observed magnification -3

Calculated Magnification -3.41

Percent Difference 12%

20.9 cm

-54.9 cm

19.2 cm

14.8 cm

Answers to questions: 1. The image is inverted. 2. It is a virtual image.

Further study, Image Formed by the Objective Lens: The objective lens forms a real, upright image;

to see it, hold a sheet of paper at distance d

from the objective. When a pencil is placed at this location, it’s vir-

Page 54

Basic Optics System Teacher’s Guide

tual image, viewed through the eyepiece lens, coincides with the virtual image of the grid pattern viewed through both lenses.

Further study, Increasing Magnification: As the objective lens is moved closer to the object, the eyepiece must be moved further away. In practice, the objective can be moved to within about 13 cm before distortion from lens aberrations becomes significant. The theoretical limit is 10 cm, or the focal length of the objective lens.

Experiment 15: Shadows

When the pencil is illuminated by the point source, the shadow appears sharper than when illuminated by a distributed light source (the crossed-arrow object). When illuminated by both point sources, the pencil casts two shadows. The area where the shadows overlap is the umbra. The areas of partial shadow are the penumbra. By moving the pencil toward the screen, the relative size of the umbra is increased. By moving the pencil away from the screen, the umbra is decreased until the two shadow separate entirely.

Page 55

Model No. OS-8515B Technical Support

Technical Support

For assistance with any PASCO product, contact PASCO at:

Address: PASCO scientific

10101 Foothills Blvd. Roseville, CA 95747-7100

Phone: 916-786-3800 (worldwide)

800-772-8700 (U.S.)

Fax: (916) 786-3292

Web: www.pasco.com

Email: support@pasco.com

Limited Warranty

For a description of the product warranty, see the PASCO catalog.

Copyright

The PASCO scientific 012-09614B granted to non-profit educational institutions for reproduction of any part of this manual, providing the reproductions are used only in their laboratories and classrooms, and are not sold for profit. Reproduction under any other circumstances, without the written consent of PASCO scientific, is prohibited.

Basic Optics System Instruction Manual

Trademarks

PASCO and PASCO scientific are trademarks or registered trademarks of PASCO scientific, in the United States and/or in other countries. A ll other brands, products, or service names are or may be trademarks or service marks of, and are used to identify, products or services of, their respective owners. For more information visit www.pasco.com/legal.

Authors: Ann Hanks

Dave Griffith Alec Ogston