The
Sound
Localization
Guidebook
Activities for
developing sound
localization
skills
Louisville, KY
PROTOTYPE
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The
Sound
Localization
Guidebook
Roy J. Brothers, Ed.D.
Roger A. Huff, M.S.
Fourth Edition
The research used to write the fi rst edition (1973) of this
book was performed pursuant to a grant with the Bureau
of Education for the Handicapped, U.B. Offi ce of Education,
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Grant OEG•2.6-062289.1582-720E7163.
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BROTHERS, ROY J., 1928-
This publication is protected by copyright and permission
The sound localization guidebook: activities for developing
sound localization skills/Roy J. Brothers, Roger A. Huff.
In keeping with our philosophy to provide access to
information for people who are blind or visually impaired,
the American Printing House for the Blind provides this book
in large print and braille.
Catalog Number 8-16080-00
© 1973, 1975, 1984, 2005
American Printing House for the Blind
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America
should be obtained from the publisher prior to any
reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission
in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, unless where noted
on specifi c pages. For information regarding permission,
write to American Printing House for the Blind,
1839 Frankfort Avenue, Louisville, KY 40206-0085.
Project Leader and Revision Editor:
Tristan G. Pierce
Editorial Assistant and Proofreader:
Monica Vaught
Graphic Design, Layout, and Illustration:
Bernadette S. Mudd
Front Cover Photography:
Crack the Whip by Seward Johnson, courtesy of
The Sculpture Foundation, Chicago
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Table of Contents
Preface ........................................................................... ix
Chapter 1: Introduction.................................................. 1
Purpose....................................................................... 6
Program...................................................................... 6
Familiarization............................................................. 9
Chapter 2: Learner Stationary
and Sound Source Stationary ...................................... 15
Chapter 3: Learner Stationary
and Sound Source Moving.......................................... 25
Chapter 4: Learner Moving
and Sound Source Stationary ...................................... 33
Chapter 5: Learner Moving
and Sound Source Moving.......................................... 45
Chapter 6: Practicing Skills Through Group Activities...... 57
Appendices..................................................................... 67
A. Using sound in performing O&M tasks ................... 69
B. Playing games with a sound source......................... 79
C. Sound source adaptations for
recreational/sport activities ..................................... 95
Reference Section ........................................................... 103
Bibliography................................................................ 105
Additional Reading...................................................... 109
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Preface
As with the original edition, the specifi c objective of this
revised book is to meet the sound localization needs of
young learners who are blind. The activities presented are
suited to a variety of situations and learners. Every effort has
been made to provide the classroom teacher, aide, physical
education instructor, and orientation and mobility specialist
with a basic inventory of activities to use in the development
of sound localization skills. The activities outlined also
include ones permitting participation of individuals or small
groups of learners who are blind with their sighted peers.
In addition, this new edition includes a list of sport activities
that can be taught to children and enjoyed by individuals
of any age.
The fi rst edition of this book was a product of the
Sound Localization Institute held in April, 1972 at the
American Printing House for the Blind (APH), Louisville,
Kentucky. Drawn from the extensive experience of the
participants, the activities and learning situations represent
a variety of successful approaches to teaching sound
localization. Undoubtedly other activities and approaches
are also effective. The reader is invited and encouraged to
send APH additional activities or simple procedures that
foster sound localization skills. Suggestions for revising or
editing activities that have been presented as well as new
activities or approaches will be considered for inclusion
in the next edition.
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APH wishes to acknowledge the members of the 1972
Notice : The changes or modifications not expressly approved by the
party responsible for compliance could void the user’s authority to
operate the equipment.
Sound Localization Institute:
M. Bernadette Alber
Ralph Brewer
Gary Coker
Will Evans
Robert Gockman
Ned Jackson
Gloria I. Roddey, Editorial Assistant
Forty-two O&M instructors and/or P.E. teachers
participated in a product specifi c survey (2002) and
recommended that APH include some new games, along
with instructions and/or adaptations on how to play the
games. Robert Wall, Ph.D., Western Michigan University,
and Rebecca Price, COMS, Western Pennsylvania School
for Blind Children reviewed the updated manuscript and
provided guidance on the reorganization of the 2005
edition. Dr. Wall authored Appendix A.
[Number to come] young learners participated in the fi eld
test evaluation of the revised manual and the Portable Sound
Source, Sport Edition, accompanying it. The results of the
fi eld test study showed... [will complete after fi eld testing].
APH gratefully acknowledges and thanks the following
professionals who participated in the fi eld evaluation.
[List fi eld test sites and evaluators]
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Chapter
One
Introduction
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Introduction
In most instances the success of the educational process
depends on effective communication. For the learner who
has a visual impairment, the auditory channel is especially
important. A young learner with a visual impairment, striving
to function in a sighted environment, places great reliance
upon the auditory modality for gaining information. As a
result, educators of learners with visual impairments began
to construct procedures to encourage effective listening
behavior. In preparing this manual, the authors have
proceeded on the principle that any skill can be enhanced
through a program of sequential developmental activities.
Basically there are fi ve levels of learning that characterize the
effective use of sounds in the environment.
1. Awareness
2. Discrimination
3. Interpretation
4. Localization
5. Conversion
Awareness is the recognition of sound in the environment.
The learner should realize that sounds are all around
him. Discrimination is the ability to recognize a particular
sound within a background of noise or as distinct from
other sounds. The use of sounds around him requires an
interpretation, which is the association of a sound with the
object producing it. Ideally the learner will want to know
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more about the source of a sound and will display inquisitive
environmental sounds may in fact be a discrimination task or
behavior. Localization is the identifi cation of the exact source
of the sound. The sound may be located in reference to
the learner’s position or some other referent being used.
Depending on the learner and the environment, localization
may precede interpretation. Conversion is the utilization
of the sound as an aid to the learner’s interaction with the
environment. The conversion of a sound requires awareness,
as well as interpretation and localization. While all of
the above levels should be included in a comprehensive
listening program, the activities in this manual are primarily
concerned with the enhancement of localization skills.
Remember that to effi ciently localize a sound, a student
must fi rst be aware of a sound, and must be able to
discriminate that sound from other sounds
an association with a particular location and not a situation
that emphasizes or requires a specifi c localization.
Recent sound localization studies have shown that blind
and sighted individuals did not differ when asked to attend
to a sound placed centrally in front of them (Lessard, Paré,
& Lassonde, 1998; Röder, Teder-Sälejärvi, Sterr, Rösler,
Hillyard, & Neville, 1999). However, blind subjects did
map the environment better than sighted subjects when
attending to sounds in peripheral auditory space (Röder
et al., 1999). Surprising to researchers, blind subjects with
peripheral residual vision did not localize sounds as well as
blind or sighted individuals (Lessard et al., 1998; Röder et al.,
1999). In general, however, young learners who are blind
in the environment.
The original study used in 1972 to develop this manual
surveyed orientation and mobility specialists and
classroom teachers relative to the development of
sound localization skills. The survey revealed a paucity of
applicable information, thus placing upon the Institute the
responsibility for developing virtually a whole new curricular
approach to teaching sound localization skills. The survey
revealed that the visually impaired learners were generally
instructed to rely extensively upon environmental sounds.
Instructors often used sounds in the natural environment,
but ones that could be partially controlled by the instructor.
However, the assumption that the student’s use of a familiar
have thresholds of sound localization equivalent to those
of sighted children (Ashmead, Wall, Ebinger, Hill, Yang, &
Eaton, 1998). Observed differences, often in favor of children
who are blind, appear to be due to practice. Improved
sound localization skills demonstrated by blind individuals
can be achieved by sighted individuals who are given sound
localization training (Lewald, 2002). The reader should
recognize that localization skills are developmental in nature
and accuracy requires practice. “Neither mother’s own voice
nor sound-making toys can successfully be used to encourage
movement until both permanence of sound producers and
localizing skills have been acquired” (Sonksen, 1984, p. 284).
In the interest of effi cient instruction of young learners, APH
voice, the sound of a distinctive motor, or wind chimes
enhances localization skills may be questioned. Such use of
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developed a highly controllable artifi cial sound source, called
the Portable Sound Source (PSS). Several times over the
years, the Technical Research Department has refi ned the
• Chapter 2 presents activities where both the learner
design and made it more portable and user friendly.
Characteristics of the PSS lend themselves readily to the
development of sound localization skills. Its size and weight
permit easy manipulation and direction of the sound. It may
be moved in a horizontal plane to any point around the
learners, and within a vertical plane raised to head level and
above or placed on the ground. Tone, volume, and signal
rate can all be varied to make the sound more discriminable
by learners. The use of a highly discriminable sound source
helps to alleviate problems associated with awareness and
identifi cation, and allows learners to devote full attention to
the development of sound localization skills.
and the sound source are stationary. Although the
activities in this chapter are described for individualized
instruction, they can be used in small group settings
as well, with participants replying in unison, raising
their hands, or being called on, when verbal
responses are required.
• Chapter 3 presents activities where the learner is
stationary and the sound source is moving.
• Chapter 4 presents activities where the learner is
moving and the sound source is stationary.
• Chapter 5 presents activities where both the learner
Purpose
The purpose of this manual is to provide teachers of visually
impaired young learners with a few selected activities that
may be used to develop sound localization skills.
Program
Chapters 2-5 focus on individualized skills that are
preliminary to the group skills presented in chapter 6. The
individualized activities are instructionally sequenced how a
teacher and young learner may best use the sound source.
and the sound source are moving.
• Chapter 6 introduces group play/activities that help
the learner(s) practice localization skills learned in
the previous chapters.
Implicit in the chapter sequence are situations that increase
in complexity. Each chapter represents a different set of
factors based on the relationship of the learner to the
sound source. Activities within a chapter also represent the
sequential development of skills. This provision for chapter
and activity sequence offers fl exibility for the instructor in
the arrangement of experiences that are provided. Likewise,
if a learner has suffi cient skill, he can move quickly through
the fi rst few sections as a test phase, before going on to
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higher level tasks. Always keep in mind that is not necessary
to attain skill or even attempt all activities in one chapter
Familiarization
before moving to the next.
When using chapter 6, it is possible for the teacher to make
continuous observations of the learner’s skill level while
participating in the group activities, and if necessary return
to specifi c individualized activities presented in the previous
chapters for practice and reinforcement of skills.
The activities are intended as a guide for the teacher.
The reader should become thoroughly familiar with the
types of activities presented, try them out with learners,
and then make some preliminary decisions regarding the
sequence, level of diffi culty, and their appropriateness for
each learner’s situation.
Before the introduction of formalized activities, the
learner must be familiarized with the sound device.
Since variation in the device’s rate, volume, and tone are
possible, the learner should fi rst become familiar with
these characteristics. Complete familiarization includes the
operation of all controls and recognition of the resulting
effect. The familiarization should be used to decrease fear or
negative feelings. It should also act to reinforce the learner’s
level of awareness and identifi cation. The familiarization
underlies many of the preliminary activities that have been
suggested, but there are also specifi c topics and situations
that will aid in the overall process.
Planned learning situations familiarize the learner with
While the development of sound localization skills is
the continuing and dominant objective, the games and
activities presented may be useful in the accomplishment
of several objectives. Many of the games and activities
introduce an element of competition either with members
of the group or with oneself. Since the ability to localize is
related to successful performance, the activity approach is
highly motivating. Of course, in a class of sighted and blind
learners, all derive educational benefi ts from participation.
Once the focus of the activity is clearly on the development
of sound localization skills, teachers can effectively apply
their own distinctive styles of teaching with no fear of
the device’s capabilities.
1. Introduce the sounds of the device when conducting
sound discrimination activities such as listening to
recorded environmental sounds. These are quite
different from ordinary sounds learners might hear.
2. Introduce the sounds of the device when discussing
loudness and softness (volume). Demonstrate a loud
signal and a soft signal.
3. Introduce the sounds of the device in the course of
discussing high and low sounds (pitch or tone). Ask
the learner to discriminate between a high sounding
signal and a lower sounding signal.
obscuring the basic objectives.
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4. Introduce the sounds of the device during or
following a discussion of rhythm. Use the device
Model: Portable Sound Source, Sport Edition
to demonstrate three different speeds (rate)
of signal frequency.
Physical activities readily lend themselves to demonstrating
and emphasizing the foregoing suggestions.
1. Ask the learner(s) to spread her arms wide apart when
the sound is loudest and bring her hands together
when it is softest.
2. Ask the learner(s) to stand as tall as he can when
the sound is high and to squat down as the sound
becomes lower in tone. By varying the tone and
volume the result can be a series of deep knee bends
or arm and shoulder extensions.
The push button model has 30 stepped levels of rate,
tone, and volume. It can be operated by pushing
the tactile buttons on the device, or by using the
tactile remote control.
1. Encourage the learners
to examine the shape of
the device. Point
out the speaker, the
carrying strap, the off/
on two-position power
switch, and the
eight control buttons.
2. The off/on two-position
3. Ask the learner(s) to hop on one foot in the same
rhythm as the signal — the activity may be varied
by jumping or raising up to tiptoe in time with the
signal. The learner(s) may be asked to clap in rhythm.
4. Require the learners to respond to the absence
of sound. A variation of Musical Chairs may be
used in which the learners squat down when
the signal is discontinued. The last learner
responding is eliminated.
The teacher may wish to use some discretion in allowing
young learners to manipulate the controls. For those
who are given the opportunity, the following suggestions
are made.
power switch is centrally
located at the top of
the device. This switch must be pushed to the right
before the Play button will activate. This switch also
allows for the operation of the remote. When not in
use for extended periods of time, the switch should
be pushed to the left to conserve battery life.
3. The fi rst two buttons (black north and south pointing
raised carets) are the Rate buttons. The upper button
increases the rate or makes the repetitive sound go
faster. The bottom button decreases the rate or
makes it go slower.
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4. The second set of buttons (blue north and south
3. The fi rst knob on the left controls the rate at which
pointing raised carets) regulates the Tone. The upper
button makes the tone (or pitch) higher, and the
lower button makes the tone lower.
5. The third set of buttons (white north and south
pointing raised carets) controls the Volume. The
upper button increases the volume, and the lower
button decreases the volume.
6. The last set of buttons controls the Play/Stop
action. The upper button (a green raised circle)
starts the device. The lower button (a red raised X)
stops the device.
Model: Portable Sound Source 2003
the beeping signal is emitted. The rate increases as
the knob is turned clockwise.
4. The second knob controls volume, which increases as
the knob is turned clockwise.
5. The third knob from the left controls the tone (or
pitch) of the signal. Turning the knob in a clockwise
direction increases frequency.
Suggest activities to help learners refi ne their abilities to
follow directions. One, two, or a series of directions may
be used. Games such as Simon Says and Mother May I may
provide structure for the learners’ responses and insure that
they are attending to the task.
The turn knob model produces continuous sounds, allowing
for the option to create slurring effects by slowly or quickly
turning the knobs.
1. The control panel consists
of three knobs and a
two-position switch.
2. The device is activated
by pushing up the switch
located on the left of the
control panel.
Directions such as the following would be appropriate in the
familiarization process.
a. (“Simon says”) Locate the handle/carrying strap.
b. Carry the device by the handle. (“Mother
may I?”)
c. Carry it by placing your hands under it
on the base.
d. Touch the speaker.
e. Place the speaker toward you.
f. Turn the speaker away from you.
g. Locate the off/on switch (and play button if
applicable), turn the device on.
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h. Locate the tone control, increase and decrease
the frequency.
i. Locate the volume control, increase and decrease
the volume.
j. Locate the rate control, increase and decrease
the rate.
Chapter
Two
Learner Stationary
and Sound Source
Stationary
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Learner Stationary and
Sound Source Stationary
The general purpose of activities in chapter 2 is to provide
further familiarization with the device and to introduce
beginning localization skills.
Stationary refers to the spatial position assumed by the
learner and the sound source. The activities and localization
tasks are specifi cally designed for the blind learner who
has observable needs in the area of sound localization,
and provide a series of skill-related activities that are
fundamental to localization situations. It is a relatively
simple task to make direct applications of the activities
listed to situations commonly encountered in orientation
and mobility instruction. However, in an effort to achieve
wider acceptance and usage of the fundamentals in the
classroom, the opportunity to make specifi c applications to
formal O&M instruction has been deferred in this chapter.
The approach used is essentially individualized instruction for
development of sound localization skills.
Several conditions are noted for each activity listed in
chapter 2. The conditions may vary as to the placement
of the sound source spatially and the characteristics of
the sound (volume, rate, and tone). In the initial phases
of instruction an effort should be made to select a sound
characteristic and instructional area which will facilitate a
positive attitude on the part of the learner.
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Again, it should be remembered that activities are intended
Demonstrate:
as a guide for the teacher. The situations are instructional in
nature, and dialogue between teacher and learner is given
only to facilitate an accurate description of the situation and
potential interaction between the learner and the teacher.
Diagrams are provided for several conditions to illustrate the
logistics involved in performing a demonstration.
Each activity is performed with the learner and the sound
source in a stationary position at the time the sound is being
emitted. After each condition is performed, the sound source
is turned off and then moved to another position when
necessary. The next condition is explained to the learner,
and then the sound source is turned on. The purpose is to
increase the student’s ability to recognize and describe
a. loud volume
b. soft volume
c. high tone
d. medium tone
e. low tone
f. slow rate
g. fast rate
2. Repeat all conditions and allow the learner to identify
the sound characteristics after hearing each sound.
Instructor: “Describe the sound you are hearing.”
accurately the location of sound.
Activity One: Introducing the sound characteristics
of the sound source
1. Assume initial position: The sound source is placed
directly in front of the learner at head height and at
the distance of 4 to 10 feet.
Describe each sound characteristic prior to
the demonstration.
3. Have the learner give other examples of auditory
sounds that he has heard in the school or home
environment and describe their characteristics.
Activity Two: Locating height of sound source
1. Assume initial position: Sound source is placed directly
in front of the learner at a distance of 4 to 10 feet.
Describe the sound in terms of its height. The sound
characteristics should remain the same for the complete
range of height position (e.g., soft sound, medium tone,
slow rate).
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Demonstrate:
Instructor: “The sound you hear will be in front of you.”
a. sound source at fl oor level
b. sound source at learner’s waist level
c. sound source at learner’s head level
d. sound source above learner’s head level
2. Repeat condition one and allow the learner to
identify the height location of the sound after
hearing each sound.
Instructor: “How high is the sound?”
3. Repeat previous conditions by varying volume, tone,
and rate.
2. Repeat all conditions and allow the learner to identify
the body relationship after hearing the sound.
Instructor: “Where is the sound?”
3. Repeat the conditions, varying the volume, tone, rate,
and height position in relation to the body.
Activity Four: Determining relative distance
of sound source
1. Assume initial position: Sound source is placed
directly in front of the learner at head height in a
Activity Three: Locating the sound source in
relation to the body
1. Assume initial position: Sound source is placed at
head height at a distance of 4 to 10 feet from the
learner. Place the sound source as follows:
a. in front of learner
b. behind learner
c. left of learner
d. right of learner
near position. Near is defi ned as the space around
the learner within reaching/touching distance;
approximately one to three feet.
Instructor: “Is the sound near you?” Provide feedback to the
learner by allowing him to touch the sound source.
2. Take subsequent position: Sound source is placed
directly in front of the learner at head height in a far
position. Far is defi ned as space around the learner
beyond touching distance; approximately four feet
and beyond.
The sound characteristic used in condition one should be
Body relationships should be understood by the learner
prior to the demonstration.
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the same for this condition.
Instructor: “Is the sound near you or far from you?” (Let the
learner know if he responds accurately.)
Activity Six: Requiring a physical response
The conditions are not dependent on a large area for
3. Introduce remaining body relationships.
After an understanding has been established of near and
far with reference to the frontal position, the remaining
body relationships (behind, left, right) should be
introduced. Volume, tone, and rate may be varied when
presenting the remaining relationships. Help the learner
understand that “softness” does not always directly relate
to distance. Sound may be near and soft or far and loud.
Activity Five: Familiarization tasks
The conditions may be conducted individually with a
learner, or in the classroom, incorporating the use of the
instruction. The purpose is to develop pointing and body
directional skills. For example, the learner might be asked to:
1. Point to the sound source using the hand or
index fi nger.
2. Turn to face the sound (i.e., toes and nose directed
toward the sound).
3. Turn in place to position the sound behind one’s self.
4. Turn in place to position the sound to one’s right or
left (i.e., three o’clock or nine o’clock positions).
5. When the sound source is being held by the teacher,
squat down until it is above head level.
6. Clap in rhythm to the sound.
sound source into regular class work. For example, in the
area of arithmetic say to the learner(s):
1. “Count the number of signals you hear.”
Obtain a response.
2. “Count the signals, and add ___________ .” Provide
additional number and obtain learner response.
3. “Count the signals and subtract ____________ .”
Provide additional number and obtain
learner response.
Several variations are possible, but the general process is
a good way to reinforce basic number combinations with
different and novel media.
Activity Seven: Requiring a verbal response
The conditions may be conducted in the classroom. The
purpose is to discriminate when changes in direction
of sound occur and respond verbally. For example, a
procedure should provide opportunities for the learner to
react to changes in directional sounds and receive feedback
concerning his accuracy. Situational questions follow:
1. Is the speaker directed toward you?
2. Is the speaker directed away from you?
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Place the sound source on a desk or hold it above the head
of the learner and ask:
3. Is it above your head?-below your ear level?
Vary the volume of the sound source and ask:
4. Does it sound like the sound source is moving toward
you (increasing volume)?
5. Does it sound like the sound source is moving away
from you (decreasing volume)?
The sound source is not moved, only the volume
is changed.
Activity Eight: Requiring complex responses
A larger area is required for the suggested conditions.
1. Place the sound source in the bottom of a large box
and toss bean bags or small playground balls toward
and into the box. In the beginning, toss from a
position relatively close to the box. When retrieving
Chapter
Three
Learner Stationary
and Sound
Source Moving
the bean bag or ball, indicate the distance from the
sound source to the throwing line.
2. Place the sound source directionally behind an object
(e.g., bowling pin, Indian club) and practice tossing,
rolling, or throwing a ball in a specifi c direction.
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