Northern Lights Power Generation Reference Manual

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Technical

Reference Manual

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Northern Lights Selection Guide ............................................................ 3-6

Basic Electrical ..................................................................................... 7-13

Practical Generators ........................................................................... 14-15

Principles of Generator Operation ...................................................... 16-18

Generator Drive Engines .................................................................... 19-20

Startup Procedure for Generator Sets ......................................................21

Paralleling Procedures, Basic ..................................................................22

Engine Power Ratings ........................................................................ 23-24

Engine Noise ...................................................................................... 25-28

Fuel System ....................................................................................... 29-32

Lubrication System ............................................................................. 33-35

Cooling System .................................................................................. 36-37

Coolant Tech. Bulletin L423 ................................................................ 38-40

Alignment and Vibration ...........................................................................41

Torque-to-yield ..........................................................................................42

Electrical Formulas, Data, and Tables ................................................ 43-51

Time and Speed Table ..............................................................................52

Electrical Terminology ......................................................................... 53-59

Marine Terminology ............................................................................ 60-61

Industrial Terminology ......................................................................... 62-67

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Selection & Installation Guide

for Prime and Stand-By Power Generator Sets

CHOOSING THE RIGHT GENERATOR SET

Once you’ve decided to purchase a generator set, there are several considerations you must keep in mind when choosing which set to buy, where to install it and how to install it. This guide will help you make informed decisions during the selection and installation process.

Choosing the right set is not difﬁ cult if you take the time to analyze your requirements carefully. You will also need to know a few terms and have a basic understanding of the different types of generator sets and their operating principles.

Installation requires expert assistance and a strict adherence to local codes and regulations. We recommend that you have a contractor do your installation or, at the very least, have him provide professional advice.

STAND-BY OR PRIME?

The ﬁ rst determination you will need to make is whether you will require stand-by or prime power. Simply stated, prime power is required when you have no other source of power. A stand-by set steps in and picks up designated loads when your main power supply is not available.

GAS OR DIESEL?

There are three main components to a generator set: A diesel or gas “engine” which drives an electrical “generator end” and is monitored/governed by various “controls.”

Engines are either spark ignited (gas, natural gas, propane) or compression ignited (diesel). Diesel engines are better for heavy duty and last longer. Diesel fuel is also less combustible, making it safer to handle and store.

OPERATING SPEED

Electric equipment is designed to use power with a ﬁ xed frequency: 60 Hertz (Hz) in the United States and Canada, 50 Hertz in Europe and Australia. The frequency output of a generator depends on a ﬁ xed engine speed. To produce 60 Hz electricity, most engines operate at 1800 or 3600 RPM. Each has its advantages and drawbacks.

1800 RPM, four pole sets are the most common. They offer the best balance of noise, efﬁ ciency, cost and engine life. 3600 RPM, two pole sets are smaller and lightweight, best suited for portable, light-duty applications.

FEATURES & BENEFITS TO LOOK FOR

• Engine block. For long life and quiet operation we

recommend four cycle, liquid cooled, industrial duty diesel engines.

• Air or liquid cooling. Air cooled engines require a

tremendous amount of air and may require ducting. They’re noisy too. Liquid cooling offers quieter operation and more even temperature control.

• The fuel system should be self venting. Engine

speed should be governed by a mechanical or electronic governor. It is best to have an on-engine fuel ﬁ lter with a replaceable element.

• Intake and exhaust. Time and money savers

include a large, integral air cleaner with replaceable ﬁ lter element and a residential mufﬂ er which is built into the exhaust manifold. This saves the need for an additional mufﬂ er.

• The lubrication system should have a full ﬂ ow,

spin-on oil ﬁ lter with bypass.

• DC electrical system. Standard 12 volt system

should include: ♦ starter motor and battery charging alternator with a solid state voltage regulator ♦ quick disconnection plug-in control panel with hour meter ♦ pre-heat switch and start/stop switch ♦ safety shutdown system to protect the engine in case of oil pressure loss or high water temperature ♦ DC system circuit breaker.

• AC generator should have a 4 pole revolving ﬁ eld.

An automatic voltage regulator will provide “clean” power.

• A steel skid frame keeps everything in one piece

and eases installation. Vibration mounts isolate engine vibration for smooth, quiet operation.

• Finally, every set should be test run under load and include a complete set of operator’s and parts manuals.

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WHAT SIZE SET WILL I NEED?

Sizing is the most important step, nothing is more critical in your choice of a generator. A set that is too small won’t last, will smoke and can do damage to your electrical equipment. If it is too large, the engine will carbon up, slobber fuel and run inefﬁ ciently. We recommend that a generator set never run continuously with less than 25% load. 35% to 70% is optimum.

Additional factors which may affect efﬁ cient operation of your generator are high altitude and high air temperature. These conditions will lower generator output. Consult your supplier for de-ration information.

ESTIMATING YOUR LOAD

To estimate your electrical load, total the wattage of all the equipment you’ll operate at one time. The wattage needed to run a given piece of equipment is usually listed on its nameplate. If only amperage is listed, use this formula to ﬁ gure wattage:

Amps x Volts = Watts (Single Phase) Amps x Volts x 1.73 = Watts (Three Phase)

In addition to load requirements, it is important to consider motor starting load. Starting a motor requires up

GENERATOR TYPES & FEATURES

Generator sets produce either single or three phase power.

Choose a single phase set if you do not have any motors above ﬁ ve horsepower. Three phase power is better for motor starting and running. Most homeowners will require single phase whereas industrial or commercial applications usually require three phase power.

Three phase generators are set up to produce 120/208 or 277/480 volts. Single phase sets are 120 or 120/240. Use the low voltage to run domestic appliances and the high voltage for your motors, heaters, stoves and dryers.

Regulation is how closely the generator controls its voltage

output. Closer regulation is better for extended motor life. An externally regulated generator has an automatic voltage regulator and holds a ±1% to 2% voltage tolerance.

Temperature rise is a measurement of the increase in heat

of the generator windings from no load to full load. What it tells you is the quantity of copper in the generator. The lower the temp-rise, the more copper and the better the quality. A 105°, or lower, temp-rise is recommended for both commercial and residential prime power sets.

to ﬁ ve times more wattage than running it. Selecting a generator which is inadequate for your motor starting needs may make it difﬁ cult to start motors in air conditioners or freezers, for example. In addition, starting load causes voltage dips, which is why the lights dim when a large motor is started. These voltage dips can be more than annoying. They can ruin delicate electronic equipment such as computers.

A reliable method for factoring both running and starting wattage is to take the running wattage of your largest motor and multiply by ten. Then add the running wattages of all the smaller motors as well as the wattage of all the other loads. This will add up to your total load. Next, determine how much of the load will be operating at any one time. This is your running load. Note: If a motor can be wired up at different voltages, for example 120 volt or 240 volt, it is usually more efﬁ cient to wire it at the higher voltage.

ENGINE ACCESSORIES AND CONTROLS

After you determine the generator size you will need, make a list of optional and installation equipment you require. For noise abatement, we recommend a mufﬂ er, if one is not built-in, and an exhaust elbow. A good primary fuel ﬁ lter/water separator is a must to protect your engine’s fuel system. You will also need a control panel with gauges to

monitor your set (1) – see drawing at right. Stand-by sets

may require a block heater to keep the coolant/water mix at an adequate temperature for easier starting.

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AC SWITCHGEAR AND CONTROLS

Switchgear can be as simple or complex as you want or can afford. Of course, as complexity increases, so does cost. Balance and a good electrical advisor are the keys here. The diagrams at right illustrate basic conﬁ gurations for prime power and stand-by systems.

All generator systems require a circuit breaker (2) and a distribution panel (3). The ciruit breaker protects the

generator set from short circuit and unbalanced electrical loads. The distribution panel divides and routes the connected loads and includes circuit breakers to protect these loads.

Stand-by systems also require a main circuit breaker between

the utility source and the transfer panel (4). The transfer

panel switches power from the utility to the gen-set and back so that both aren’t on at the same time.

Auto-start, auto-transfer systems are available but are costly. Your supplier or contractor can help you determine what you will need.

BASIC PRIME POWER SYSTEM

DISTRIBUTION

PANEL WITH

CIRCUIT

BREAKERS

GEN-SET

CIRCUIT

BREAKER

BASIC STAND-BY POWER SYSTEM

UTILITY

SOURCE

GEN-SET

MAIN

CIRCUIT

BREAKER

GEN-SET

CIRCUIT

BREAKER

TRANSFER

PANEL

DISTRIBUTION

PANEL WITH

CIRCUIT

BREAKERS

INSTALLATION

Our ﬁ rst recommendation is: Let a licensed contractor do it. He has the tools, the know-how and an understanding of governing regulations and local codes. His expertise will save you money in the long run.

This diagram shows a stand-by installation and includes optional equipment. Many installations are not nearly as complex as this one. Let your dealer help you design a system to meet your requirements and budget.

1. DC Control Panel

2. Generator AC Circuit

Breaker

3. AC Distribution Panel

4. Transfer Panel (stand-by

only)

5. Cooling Air Inlet

6. Air Outlet

7. Exhaust System

8. Exhaust Flex

9. Exhaust Thimble

10. Fuel Tank

11. Cooling Air Outlet Duct

12. DC Battery

13. DC Battery Charger

(stand-by only)

If you are a dedicated do-it-your-selfer, do your homework before tackling the job and obtain the proper permits required by your local jurisdiction. While all gen-sets have some basic requirements, each brand and model has special idiosyncrasies. Also, it is extremely important to have all relative codebooks for reference and to adhere to them strictly. Most important of all, your system must be inspected before getting it up and running.

LOCATION

Where do you put it? Wherever you choose, be sure the following elements are present:

• Air inlet for combustion and engine

cooling (5).

• Outlets for exhaust (7, 8, 9) and

hot cooling air (6).

• Fuel, battery and AC electrical

connections.

• Rigid, level mounting platforms

(many sets are already mounted on a

steel skid base).

• Open accessibility for easy service.

• Isolation from living space. Keep noise and

exhaust away from occupied areas.

• Space and equipment to extinguish a ﬁ re.

• Minimize the possibility of ﬁ re danger.

Remember, gen-sets move on their vibration mounts. Allow clearance to compensate and use ﬂ ex-joints on all lines and connections.

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EXHAUST SYSTEMS

The exhaust system (7) may need to be covered with insulated material to prevent ﬁ re from contact with

combustible materials, to reduce the heat radiated from the exhaust and to ensure personal safety. Some insulation materials are best left to professionals with the proper equipment. Keep the piping away from combustible materials including walls.

A seamless, stainless steel ﬂ exible joint (8) must be used

between the generator set and the exhaust system to prevent metal fatigue.

Don’t use the exhaust manifold to support the exhaust system, the weight can cause manifold failure. Exhaust pipe hangers are readily available.

(the smaller the space the generator runs in, the higher the room temperature is likely to be), smaller spaces may require ducting. Other factors which will affect the room temperature include generator size and the outside air temperature or climate.

In an inside installation, increasing these vent sizes may cool the room down to acceptable levels. If this doesn’t provide sufﬁ cient cooling, ducting may be required to ensure “positive” air ﬂ ow. Stated simply, positive air ﬂ ow is cool, clean air in – hot air out, as opposed to circulating hot air inside the room.

Generator cooling fans move moisture as well as air. Moist air is corrosive to a genset’s copper windings. Make sure air inlets are positioned to minimize moisture intake.

FUEL SYSTEM

Extreme care should be taken in designing and installing the fuel system to prevent ﬁ re danger. Fuel lines should have as few connections as possible and be routed to prevent damage. Keep lines away from hot engine or exhaust components. The lines should be no smaller than the inlet and outlet on the engine. Support fuel lines with clamps, as needed to help prevent metal fatigue from vibration.

The fuel tank (10) should be level with or below the set to

prevent siphoning in the event of a line failure. Remember to check the lift capacity of the engine fuel pump and make sure to stay within its limits. If the set is higher, an auxiliary fuel pump may be required. To prevent water ingestion, fuel should be drawn out of the top of the tank with the pick-up extending to no more than two inches from the bottom.

Fuel storage tanks must have leakage protection. Above ground tanks are recommended due to EPA regulations. Check your local codes before installing a tank to make sure it is EPA approved. The safest tanks are double walled with alarms. These alarms are simple and well worth it to prevent a possible fuel spill.

If the tank is mounted above the generator set, use a fuel shut-off valve. This will allow you to work on the fuel system wihout the fuel siphoning out. It will also allow you to cut-off fuel ﬂ ow in the event of line breakage.

A high quality, fuel/water separator ﬁ lter should be mounted as close to the generator set as possible.

Because of its explosive nature, gasoline fuel systems have special requirements, see your supplier for complete information.

AIR

The generator set needs air for combustion and cooling. The engine is cooled by a radiator and an engine fan. The generator is cooled by an internal fan. The room, or space, in which the generator operates should not exceed 100°F. We recommend keeping it under 85°F if possible. All installations require an intake for cool, clean air and an outlet vent for hot air.

Since the size of the space affects the room temperature

DC CONTROL PANELS AND BATTERY

Mount your control panel wherever it is most convenient. Mounting it on a wall isolates it from engine vibration. Dual remote panels give you the added convenience of operating your set from two locations. Wire harness plug-ins are available on some sets. Simply plug one end of the harness into the set and the other into the control panel. Harness extensions are also available.

Protect the panel from moisture. Route the harness in dry, protected wire raceways.

Check your manufacturer’s recommendation for battery and battery cable sizes. Stand-by sets often have a battery charger which keeps the starting battery fully charged and assures quick emergency starting.

AC CONNECTIONS

Connecting the generator to your electrical distribution system is a job for a qualiﬁ ed, licensed and bonded electrician who knows local building codes.

BEFORE STARTING UP

Once you are ﬁ nished with the installation, you should call your supplier or electrician again. Arrange to have him come and inspect the work and start your set. He will be able to catch any mistakes that may have been made and either ﬁ x them for you or tell you how to do it yourself. 30% to 40% of all generator problems can be attributed to installation problems that weren’t caught because no one did a proper pre-start inspection. Those numbers prove that the inspection is well worth the time and money spent.

FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

• Uniﬁ ed Building Code

• NFPA Pamphlets on generator and electrical power systems.

• Emergency/Stand-by Power Systems by Alexander Kusko

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Electrical

BASE ELECTRICITY

Electricity or electrical power was not utilized as a major form of work producing energy until the late nineteenth century. The existence of electricity is not, however, a nineteenth century or modern day discovery. The ancient Greeks, in fact, unknowingly discovered electricity in observing that a piece of rough amber would attract and pull tiny ﬂ akes of wood and feathers toward it. The word “electricity” is itself derived from the Greek deﬁ nition of amber.

Through the centuries man continued his studies of the mysteries of electricity. Long before anyone ever heard of electrons or even imagined that the atom existed, certain men had observed and recorded some of the basic laws of electricity. Even with the recent development of the electron theory, these basic laws remain relatively unchanged and still serve as vital contributions to our understanding of electricity. Since acceptance of the electron theory has advanced our understanding of the fundamentals so greatly, a review of this theory is imperative to further study of electricity.

TYPES OF ELECTRICAL CURRENT

Electrical energy used today is commonly generated in either the form of direct current produced by chemical action and through electromagnetic induction or alternating current which is also produced by electromagnetic induction.

Before proceeding in the discussion of types of currents we need to know a little about the operation of a simple generator. Generators utilize a form of magnetic induction to create ﬂ ow of electrons.

A simple generator consists of a coil or loop of wire arranged so that it can be rotated in circular motion and cut through a magnetic ﬁ eld consisting of North

and South poles. Referring to the illustration, Figure 3, we can see that current alternates according to the

armature’s position in relation to the poles. At 0˚ and again at 180˚ no current is produced. At 90˚ current reaches a maximum positive value. Rotation to 270˚ brings another maximum ﬂ ow of current only at this

FIGURE 3 - OPERATION OF A SIMPLE GENERATOR

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position current has reversed its polarity and now ﬂ ows in the opposite direction. All generators produce alternating current in the armature. DC generators are therefore basically AC alternators modiﬁ ed to produce direct current by addition of devices which cause ﬂ ow to be unidirectional.

DIRECT CURRENT

Electrons in direct current always ﬂ ow in a single direction. Current created through chemical action by an automobile battery, for instance, produces a smooth, constant ﬂ ow of electrons all going in the same direction.

A DC generator also produces a unidirectional ﬂ ow of electrons, however, a ripple or variation in intensity is evident in its current. This is due to the fact that a DC generator utilizes only the positive alternation of the alternating current. Apparently this current would pulsate from zero to maximum value and return to zero

at regular intervals. This is not the actual case since devices are used to smooth out these pulsations so that current is held at a high maximum value with only slight variation in intensity.

ALTERNATING CURRENT

With alternating current on the other hand, the electrons ﬂ ow ﬁ rst in one direction then reverse and move in the opposite direction and repeat this cycle at regular intervals. This reversal is due to a principle of electromagnetic induction. A wave diagram or so called “sine” wave of alternating current shows that the current goes from zero value to maximum positive value, reverses itself again to return to zero. Two reversals of current such as this is referred to as a cycle. The number of cycles per second is called hertz.

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FIGURE 4 - DIRECT CURRENT WAVE FORMS

FIGURE 5 - AC REVERSES POLARITY AND DIRECTION OF FLOW

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ELECTRICAL UNITS

FIGURE 5-A - ALTERNATING CURRENT SINE WAVE

In the study of electricity and electrical circuits, it is necessary to establish deﬁ nite units to express qualitative values of current ﬂ ow, voltage (difference in potential) and resistance. The standard electrical units area as follows:

AMPERE - UNIT OF CURRENT FLOW

The rate of electron ﬂ ow in a circuit is represented by the ampere which measures the number of electrons ﬂ owing past a given point at a given time, usually in seconds, )One ampere, incidentally, amounts to a little over six thousand-million-billion electrons per second.)

The rate of ﬂ ow alone is not, however, sufﬁ cient to measure electric energy. For example, a placid stream may ﬂ ow the same gallons per minute as water gushing out of a ﬁ re hydrant. Relating this to electricity, we can have the same amount of current in this electricity, however it is obvious that the difference in potential or voltage must be greater in the smallest wire to obtain the same number of amperes. To measure electric energy accurately, we have to know both the rate of ﬂ ow and the voltage which causes the ﬂ ow.

VOLT - UNIT OF ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

The volt is the measurement of the difference in electrical potential that causes electrons to ﬂ ow in an electrical circuit. If the voltage is weak, few electrons will ﬂ ow and the stronger voltage becomes, the more electrons will be caused to move. Voltage, then, can be considered as a result of a state of unbalance and current ﬂ ow as an attempt to regain balance. The volt represents the amount of emf that will cause current to

ﬂ ow at the rate of 1 ampere through a resistance of 1 ohm.

OHM - UNIT OF RESISTANCE

In all electrical circuits there is a natural resistance or opposition to the ﬂ ow of electrons. When an electromotive force (emf) is applied to a complete circuit, the electrons are forced to ﬂ ow in a single direction rather than their free or orbiting pattern. Utilization of a good conductor of sufﬁ cient size will allow the electrons to ﬂ ow with a minimum of opposition or resistance to this change of direction and motion. Resistance within an electrical current is evident by the conversion of electrical energy into heat energy. The resistance of any conductor depends on its physical makeup, its cross sectional area, its length and its temperature. As the temperature of a conductor increases, its resistance increases in direct proportion. One ohm expresses the resistance that will allow one ampere of current to ﬂ ow when one volt of electromotive force is applied. Resistance applies to all DC circuits and some AC circuits. Other factors affect rate of ﬂ ow in most AC circuits. These factors are known as reactance and are described later.

OHM’S LAW (MEASURING UNITS)

In any circuit through which a current is ﬂ owing, three factors are present.

a) The potential difference (volts) which causes the current to

ﬂ ow.

b) The opposition to current ﬂ ow or resistance of the circuit

(ohms).

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FIGURE 6 - ELETRICAL UNITS

c) The current ﬂ ow (amperes) which is maintained in the

circuit as a result of the voltage applied.

A deﬁ nite and exact relation exists between these three factors thereby the value of any one factor can always be calculated when the values of the other two factors are known. Ohm’s Law states that in any circuit the current will

increase when the voltage increases but the resistance remains the same, and the current will decrease when the resistance increases and the voltage remains the same. The formula for this equation is Volts=amperes x

ohms (E=IR).

To use this form of Ohm’s Law, you need to know the amperes and the ohms, for example, how many volts are impressed on a circuit having a resistance of 10 ohms and a current of 5 amperes? Solution E=5 x 10 = 50 volts.

The formula may also be arranged to have amperes the unknown factor, for example, Amperes = volts divided by ohms.

To have ohms the unknown factor, arrange the formula in this

MEASURING UNIT - SYMBOL EQUATIONS RELATION OF UNITS*

CURRENT FLOW - AMPERES = I

DIFFERENCE ON POTENTIAL - VOLTS = E

RESISTANCE - OHMS = R

AMPERES =

VOLTS = AMPERES X OHMS

OHMS=

manner. Ohms = volts divided by amperes.

The circle diagram provided can be used as an aid to remembering these equations. To use this diagram, simply cover the unknown factor and the other two will remain in

their proper relationship.

WATTS - UNITS OF POWER

We measure electric power in watts. One watt is equal to a current of one ampere driven by an emf of one volt. For the larger blocks of power we use the term kilowatt for one thousand watts. There is a deﬁ nite relationship between electric power and mechanical power. One horse power equals seven hundred and forty-six watts of electrical energy. (746)

Since power is the rate of doing work, it is necessary to consider the amount of work done and the length of time taken to do it. The equation for calculating electrical power is P = E x I or Watts = Volts x Amperes. Using this equation to ﬁ nd the power rating of a 120 volt, 30 ampere generator, we would come up with the following: P = 120 x 30 = 3,600 watts. The power equation can also be expressed in different

VOLTS

OHMS

VOLTS (E)

OHMS

VOLTS

AMPERES

AMPS

(I)

(R)

* When two values are known, cover the unknown to obtain the formula.

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CURRENT FLOW IN A CIRCUIT IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE VOLTAGE AND INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO THE RESISTANCE.

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WATTS - THE MEASURING UNIT OF ELECTRICAL POWER

EQUATIONS

WATTS = VOLTS x AMPERES

WATTS (P)

VOLTS

(E)

AMPS (I)

AMPERES =

VOLTS =

WATTS

VOLTS

WATTS

AMPERES

forms. We can use it to ﬁ nd amperes when watts and volts are known. An example of this would be: Amperes = Watts divided by Volts. This equation is used frequently in ﬁ guring the current of any DC electric plant or any appliance such as electric heater or light bulb rated in watts. We can combine the ohm equation with the watt equation to form other useful equations in determining power factor of circuits.

REACTANCE IN AC CURRENT

In DC the only opposition to current ﬂ ow to be considered is resistance. This is also true in AC current if only resistance type loads such as heating and lamp elements are on the circuit. In such cases the current will be in phase with the voltage - that is, the current wave will coincide in time with the voltage wave. Voltage and current are seldom, however, in phase in AC circuits due to several other factors which are inductive and capacitive reactance.

Inductive reactance is the condition where current lags

behind voltage. Magnetic lines of force are always created at right angles to a conductor whenever current ﬂ ows with-in a circuit. An emf is created by this ﬁ eld only when current changes in value such as it does constantly in alternating current. This magnetic ﬁ eld induces electromotive forces which inﬂ uences current to continue ﬂ owing as voltage drops and causes voltage to lead current. If a conductor is formed into a coil, the magnetic lines of force are concentrated in the center of the coil. This greater density causes an increase in

magnetically induced emf without increasing current. Coils, therefore, cause inductive reactance. This condition is also caused by an induction motor on the circuit which utilizes the current’s magnetic ﬁ eld for excitation.

Capacitive reactance is, on the other hand, the condition

where current leads the voltage. Capacitance can be thought of as the ability to oppose change in voltage. Capacitance exists in a circuit because certain devices within the circuit are capable of storing electrical charges as voltage is increased and discharging these charges as the voltage falls.

FIGURE 9 - REACTANCE SINE WAVES

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POWER FACTOR

Unity power factor applies to the circuits where current and voltage are in phase. This is also referred to as a power factor of 1. The true power (watts) of a unity power factor circuit is easily calculated as a product of amperes times volts (divided by 1000 for KW).

When out of phase conditions prevail, as is the usual case in AC circuits, the product of amperes times volts reveals the apparent power of the circuit rather than the true power. KVA represents kilovolt-amperes and describes apparent power while KW is used to describe true power in AC circuits with inductive or capacitive reactance. An analogy relating mechanical work to electrical power may help explain the reason for apparent and true power ratings of reactance type AC circuits.

Referring to Figure 10, we see an airplane towing a glider. Assume that the tow plane must , for some reason, pull the glider in Position A. In this position, the tow cable is at an angle of 45˚. The force applied by the tow plane is then at an angle to the direction of motion of the glider.

It is obvious that more force must be exerted in Position A to do the same amount of useful work that would be accomplished in Position B where no angle exists and force and motion are in the same direction.

A situation similar to that shown in the foregoing analogy presents itself in inductive or capacitive AC circuits. In these circuits more power must be supplied than can actually be utilized because an angle similar

to the one in the analogy exists between voltage and current. Since current either leads or lags voltage by a number of degrees in time, they never reach their corresponding maximum values at the time within these circuits.

Referring to the 45˚ inductive reactance sine wave illustrated in Figure 10-A, we see that at point B (or 90˚ in time) voltage has reached its maximum value while current has approached but not quite reached its maximum value. If we calculate the power in the circuit at this point (or any other point for that matter) the product of volts times amperes will not indicate the actual or true power for while voltage is at its peak value, current is at less than its maximum value. In other words, this reveals only the apparent power.

To determine the true power, the number of degrees that current is out of phase with amperes must be applied as a correction factor.

This correction factor is called power factor in AC circuits and it is the cosine of the phase angle. The cosine of any angle is usually listed in math and electrical handbooks. The cosine of the angle of 45˚ would be 0.707 or electrically a power factor of 0.707.

The triangular representation shown in Figure 10A can be used to ﬁ nd the apparent (KVA) and true (KW) ratings of a 240 volt, 55 ampere, single phase generator. Since KVA is the product of volts times amperes, KVA in this case will equal 240 x 55 divided by 1000 or 13.2. The triangle shows an angle of 45˚

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FIGURE 10 - MECHANICAL WORK - POWER FACTOR

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FIGURE 10-A - POWER FACTOR DETERMINED BY DEGREE VOLTS “OUT OF PHASE” WITH

AMPERES

between volts and amperes. The power factor would be the cosine of this angle or 0.7.

The true power of this generator can now be calculated as the product of KVA (13.2) times power factor (.7). The true power of the generator will, therefore, be

9.24 KW. At .8 power factor, this same generator could be rated at 10.56 KW so we see that the higher the power factor - the greater the real power (KW) of the generator.

Normally the rating of a single phase AC generator is stated at “unity” power factor for pure resistance type loads. This rating is also frequently stated at .8 power factor for 3 phase generators to accommodate average reactance type loads. The power factor rating of a generator must at least match the power factor of the load applied. In most cases, it is not safe to assume that a load is, in fact, average and that the generator’s .8 power factor rating is sufﬁ cient to carry the load. The actual power factor of the load should be determined.

There are numerous ways in which the power factor of a circuit can be determined, however, a discussion of the various methods becomes too involved to adequately cover in our study of basic electricity.

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AN APPROACH TO PRACTICAL GENERATORS

Practical AC generators are of the rotating ﬁ eld type. The magnetic ﬁ eld of the rotating ﬁ eld poles is generated by many turns of wire which are supplied by direct electrical connection to the exciter armature (in brushless generators).

The stator, or armature, is constructed of stacked laminations with many slots in which the coils of wire lay. Since a single turn of wire could not be long enough to generate the voltages required, many turns are wound together and distributed in the slots in such a manner that the voltages generated are added together by connecting the coils in series. In order to generate voltages in various phase relationships, the wires in a given section of the armature are grouped together for each phase as shown in ﬁ gure 3 and ﬁ gure 4 for single phase and three phase respectively.

All of the possible reasons for the distribution of coils among several slots could not be covered here, nor can the effects of this distribution be discussed completely. However, the shape and value of the output voltage wave depends upon this distribution.

Single-phase and three-phase generators.

So far we have been discussing the single phase generator, that is, a generator with one winding. It may

have two or more groups of coils, but it is still single phase if the voltages across the two groups of coils reach their peak at the same time.

Some generators have two windings of which one reaches its peak at the time the other reaches zero. This is a two phase generator. There are very few applications for a two phase systems. Therefore, this brief note will be all of the discussion on this type.

Of the systems we will cover, the one using three windings is most common. These three windings are so placed that three separate voltages are generated. This is called a three-phase generator. The three voltages are equal in value and 120 electrical degrees apart as shown in ﬁ gure 5. The three windings may be connected in a triangle as in ﬁ gure 6. This is called a Delta (∆) connection, or they may be connected in a Wye (Y) as shown in ﬁ gure 7, with one end of each winding connected. The three-phase system makes more effective use of the iron and copper than a singlephase system, to the extent that in most diesel engine driven generator sets, a single-phase generator will weigh more than a three-phase generator of the same output rating.

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∆

Figure 3 - Single phase grouping Figure 4 - Three phase grouping

FIGURE 10-A - MECHANICAL WORK - POWER FACTOR

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Figure 5 - Three-phase voltage or current

Generally the Wye connection is used in preference to the Delta connection because the neutral can be grounded and also to prevent circulating current which can occur in the Delta connection. Delta connections are used in preference to Wye connections when you want 240 volts three-phase and also 120/208 volts single-phase.

If the central or neutral point of a Wye connection is connected to a line, the circuit becomes a threephase, four wire system. The three-phase, four wire Wye connection shown below in ﬁ gure 8 gives 120/208 volts, and accommodates both lights and motors, without the use of lighting transformers. This connection is commonly used for low-voltage networks.

In a three-phase system if the voltage is mentioned without any reference to whether a Delta or Wye system is used or, in a Wye system, whether line-toline or line-to-neutral voltage is meant, the reference is almost always to be taken to mean the line-to-line voltage.

You are advised to note that in the Delta connection the line-line voltage = phase voltage. In the Wye connection line-line voltage = phase voltage x √3 or (1.732 x phase voltage).

Figure 6 - 3-phase 3-wire delta system

Figure 8 - 3-phase 4-wire wye system

Figure 7 - 3-phase 3-wire wye system

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Principles of Generator Operation

Through residual magnetism of the exciter stator or main rotor, the generator produces the start voltage to ﬁ re up the automatic voltage regulator, (AVR). AC from the main stator is fed to and sensed by the AVR. Which in turn supplies DC to the excitor stator. During no load operation this is around 8 to 12 vdc.

This magnetizes the exciter stator............

The exciter rotor spins inside the exciter stator ﬁ eld breaking the lines of ﬂ ux, thus absorbing as AC. Then the AC is fed through a rectiﬁ er

system to convert to DC............

This DC is then fed up the shaft to the main

rotor, magnetizing the rotor.......

And the main stator absorbing the lines of ﬂ ux, produces AC regulated by the AVR to the proper output.

When a Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG or W-Series generator), is used, the difference in the operating system is the AVR gets its power from the PMG, not the generator stator. Only the sensing for the AVR comes from the generator stator. This design creates better voltage control for motor loads, SCR loads, and provides 300% short circuit protection.

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Output

Main Stator

Shaft

Main

Rotor

Exciter

Stator

Principle of Generator Operation

AVR

PMG

Stator

Rotating

Rectiﬁ er

Exciter

Rotor

PMG

Rotor

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Output

Main Stator

Shaft

Main

Rotor

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Principle of Generator Operation

AVR

Exciter

Stator

Rotating

Rectiﬁ er

Exciter

Rotor

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Generator-Drive Engines

FREQUENCY

Drive engines for AC generators must run at a speed that generates the proper electrical frequency. The speed at which an engine runs to produce the desired output

frequency is the synchronous speed.

Common synchronous speeds for utility loads are:

Engine Speed Generator Frequency Poles

3600 RPM 2 poles 60 Hz

3000 RPM 2 poles 50 Hz

1800 RPM 4 poles 60 Hz

1500 RPM 4 poles 50 Hz

1200 RPM 6 poles 60 Hz

The synchronous speeds for aircraft support diesel generators are:

Engine Speed Generator Frequency Poles

3000 RPM 16 poles 400 Hz

2400 RPM 20 poles 400 Hz

2000 RPM 24 poles 400 Hz

1846 RPM 26 poles 400 Hz

GOVERNOR DROOP

Droop is the speed change when an engine goes from full load to no load at wide open throttle. Lugger engines are set with a maximum governer droop of 5% at 1800 RPM, and 7% at 1500 RPM. The formula for droop (%) is:

FREQUENCY REGULATION

Frequency critical circuits must have an engine that runs at constant speed. This cannot be achieved with the standard mechanical governors on the generator drive engines. A “zero droop” or “isochronous” governor maintains a constant engine speed at any load. Isochronous operation on a Lugger diesel engine requires a fuel injection pump with a customer provided add-on electronic governor or an electronically controlled engine.

Frequency regulation is a result of the engine governor droop. Adjusting frequency requires an engine governor adjustment. Electrical speciﬁ cations always specify frequency regulation.

GOVERNOR STABILITY

Stability is determined by how well an engine’s governor maintains a constant speed with a steady load. The ﬂ uctuation with mechanical droop governors is ±0.5% or about ±8 RPM. Isochronous governor systems should provide a ﬂ uctuation of ±0.25% or less.

Mechanically governed generator-driven engines may surge when governor droop adjustment is less than 5% @ 1800 rpm (7% @ 1500 rpm). Governor stability is affected by the governor droop adjustment. Adjusting a mechanical governor to reduce droop will make the governor less stable throughout the operating range. This reduction in stability can cause “hunting” or “surging” of the engine.

Part load operation also allows unburned fuel to gather in the engine exhaust and lube systems. This type of operation can result in unsightly leakage from the exhaust system, as well as increased maintenance costs. An oversized engine will more likely have these problems. A generator set operates best from 50% to 90% of full rated load. Long term operation at less then 30% of full rated load is not recommended.

(No Load RPM - Full Load RPM) x 100

Full Load RPM

At 5% droop, an 1800 RPM generator-driven engine at a full load speed of 1800 RPM would go to 1890 RPM at no load. This falls within the normal frequency band of 60 Hz to 63 Hz, which is acceptable for pumps, fans, motors, general lighting and utility power.

VOLTAGE REGULATORS

External voltage regulators control the output voltage of the generator by controlling the ﬁ eld excitation current. Internally regulated generators are used for special purpose applications and are not adjustable.

The simplest manual and mechanical regulators use rheostats (variable resistors) to adjust the ﬁ eld excitation current to the generator. Systems with little or no variation in load, or systems that don’t require close voltage regulation, may use this type of voltage regulation. Manual and mechanical regulators are inexpensive, but have unacceptable performance for most electrical systems. Mechanical regulators can hold the voltage regulation to

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±4%. No regulation is available with manual control.

Transistorized and Silicon Controlled Rectiﬁ er (SCR) voltage regulators provide analog control of the ﬁ eld current. Variations in load are sensed by the regulator which adjusts the ﬁ eld excitation current to regulate voltage.

Digital or microprocessor controlled regulators sense engine and generator operating conditions, and make appropriate adjustments in ﬁ eld current and voltage based on logic programmed into the microprocessor.

Any voltage regulator (transistorized, SCR or digital) that can adjust the ﬁ eld current in response to a load change is called an Automatic Voltage Regulator or AVR. AVR’s can maintain the voltage within ±2% of nominal voltage, and some hold to ±0.5% or better.

TRANSIENT RESPONSE

When load is applied to an AC generator set, the engine speed drops until the governor can recover. The time it takes to recover the voltage and frequency to the normal bandwidth is called, recovery time. Recovery times are inﬂ uenced by many factors including engine, generator, and voltage regulator design.

The operational requirements of the electrical system are determined by the type of load on the system. Light bulbs are not affected by voltage or frequency changes other than a change in brightness (brown-out) when the voltage drops. However, when electric motors run below rated frequency, they overheat. If the voltage drops too far, motor controller relays may drop out and knock the motor off line.

AVR’s are designed to drop voltage when a sudden load is applied. This drop, called voltage dip, reduces the load on the engine and allows for quick recovery times. Dropping the voltage also reduces the load on the motors and reduces motor heating problems. Voltage dips of up to 35% are acceptable for most utility load systems. Voltage sensitive circuits may tolerate voltage dips of up to 20%.

To improve the recovery time, AVR’s for diesel generator sets may incorporate a Volts/Hz adjustment that drops voltage and frequency while the engine is picking up the load. Loss of frequency regulation for a few seconds does not cause problems for typical utility loads. Volts/Hz regulators designed for turbocharged engines have a delay to allow for turbocharger recovery before applying the load. This gives quicker overall response than loading the engine before the turbocharger can respond to the load change. AVR’s designed for naturally aspirated engines do not have this delay feature.

provide response times in the 4-second to 5-second range when going from no load to full load with a maximum voltage dip of 35%. Better performance can be achieved by lowering generator output levels, applying the load in steps or with high performance voltage regulators.

CYCLIC IRREGULARITY

When the engine ﬁ ring pulses are spaced further apart than one electrical cycle or 1 Hz, the electrical wave form may be distorted. This can cause problems for certain types of electronic equipment. Cyclic irregularity is most likely when the number of engine cylinders is less than the number of poles in the generator.

OVERSPEED PROTECTION

Most customers assume a runaway engine to be the cause of overspeed problems in a diesel generator set. This is seldom the case. A runaway engine is unlikely.

A generator set is more likely to overspeed due to the introduction of regenerative power into the electrical bus. This drives the generator as a motor and overspeeds the unit. When this occurs, the engine governor drops the fuel rate to the idle setting. For overspeed protection, the generator set assembler can provide an overspeed trip which would cut off fuel to the engine and shut down the generator. The trip should be set at 15% to 20% above rated engine speed.

BALANCED THREE-PHASE LOAD

Generators should have the resistive and inductive loads balanced on each phase. A phase imbalance of more than 5% will cause unstable voltage regulation. This problem cannot be corrected with engine or generator adjustments. The distribution circuits should be rearranged until balance can be achieved.

DC GENERATORS

DC Generators are occasionally used for special purpose equipment or more typically to repower old units. Since there is no frequency in a DC electrical system, it is much simpler to operate in parallel. DC generator drive engines use droop governors and do not need to be synchronized. The load is balanced with ﬁ eld excitation adjustment.

The use of AVR’s has improved the response characteristics of generator sets so that engines with high BMEP ratings can carry larger electrical loads. With modern AVR’s, which incorporate Volts/Hz adjustment, the Lugger diesel prime mover engines can be expected to

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Start up procedure for Generator Sets

1. Check all electrical connections in generator and panel.

2. Check fuel system and bleed out any air. Make sure supply and return lines are open.

3. Check exhaust system for proper installation

a. Dry exhaust

b. Wet exhaust

4. Check engine ventilation system.

a. Industrial application

b. Marine application

5. Check for proper ﬂ uid levels.

a. Heat exchanged units, seawater is at

pump.

b. Keel cooled units.

c. Radiator units, coolant should be

approximately 1 inch below top of radiator.

6. On some installations, keel coolers are installed in such a manner that the cooler slopes upwards away from the inlet and outlet. In this case it is the responsibility of the boatbuilder to install a bleed screw at the high point of the cooler.

7. Start unit at no load.

8. Check AC output voltage at the generator, for proper output. And make sure the generator output is the proper voltage and phase that is needed by the boat or building.

9. Check AC voltage regulator ﬁ eld voltage.

a. 10 to 18 volts DC approximately - with

no load.

10. If voltage regulator fuse or breaker blows, check wiring and make sure generator is not connected to the load source.

Most keel cooled units will overheat on start up, because of air in the system. This will be indicated by a rise above 200 degrees on the engine temperature. Water pump inlet will be hot and the expansion tank discharge will be cold.

Method to correct this:

1. On a cold engine, ﬁ ll coolant system

slowly. Using vent on side of thermostat housing, vent air out until water ﬂ ows through vent. Also bleed air from vent on turbo, on turbocharged units.

2. On a hot engine, with engine running, carefully keep adding coolant with the thermostat vent open until engine temperature drops to normal and unit stops taking coolant. Close vent. Be careful of engine burping coolant and air out the ﬁ ller opening. Also double check turbo vent for air.

11. If 8, 9, and 10 are okay then check panel meters for proper operation.

12. Then apply load and note operation of equipment for normal events.

13. Fill out paperwork.

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Paralleling Procedure

PRELIMINARY STEPS

Step 1. Start unit no. 1 and record no load AC voltage, hertz, and DC ﬁ eld voltage. Close line circuit breaker to the buss and load. Then record again the load AC voltage, hertz, and voltage regulator DC ﬁ eld voltage in steps of 25% load if possible.

Step 2. Start unit no. 2 and record no load AC voltage, hertz, and DC ﬁ eld voltage

Then check phase rotation to match the buss.

Remove unit no. 1 from the buss and put unit no. 2 on the buss, recording loaded AC voltage, hertz, and voltage regulator DC ﬁ eld voltage. In the same load steps as on ﬁ rst unit.

The purpose of doing the above is to match AC voltage between the units. So when you are done with the settings both units should have the same no load voltage and they should droop the same amount of voltage under the same load conditions. And the same goes for the speed droop. The AC voltage stability on all units should be about the same to minimize cross current at no or light load conditions.

A word on cross current, the voltage regulator should have the paralleling option to provide regulator droop under load conditions, if one units voltage goes up and the other units voltage goes down, reverse the “ct” leads at the regulator to match.

After preliminary adjustments are made you should not have to do them again, unless for some reason the values change. Always record readings and keep, in maintenance log.

SYNCHRONIZATION STEPS

Step 1. With one unit on the buss and carrying the load, start the second unit.

Step 2. Turn on the sync. lights or scope.

Step 3. Observing lights adjust speed of second unit to be slightly faster than the unit on the buss. The lights will go on and off slowly (bright to dark).

Step 3a. With the sync. scope adjust the off line unit’s speed so that the scope rotates clockwise slowly.

Step 4. At the instant the lights go darkest, close the second unit’s circuit breaker to the buss.

Step 4a. With the sync. scope, as it rotates between the 11:00 and 1:00 position instantly close the second units circuit breaker to the buss.

Step 5. At this point you can balance loads by adjusting engine speed. Load imbalance is a function of engine speeds up or down.

NEVER ADJUST VOLTAGE AFTER UNITS ARE IN PARALLEL!!!!!!!!!!

PARALLELING PROCEDURE MANUAL, LIGHTS OR SCOPE

Paralleling diagram - single phase

120/240 V plants

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Engine Power Ratings

An engine is given a certain power rating by the manufacturer according to the type of service in which the engine will be used. The objective is to limit the maximum power output so that desired engine life will be achieved. For example, a prime power rating is higher than a continuous rating but lower than a standby rating.

Engine life expectancy is usually expressed in terms of engine operating hours before its ﬁ rst major overhaul. In some cases, engine life in terms of years of service may be more signiﬁ cant. Life expectancy for a heavy- duty diesel engine in either continuous or prime power service will average 10,000 hours, or more, provided the engine is properly applied and maintained.. The same engine with a higher rating would have a shorter life expectancy.

An engine for standby service might operate an average of only 100 hours per year. So it would be ridiculous to rate its power capacity low enough to achieve a 10,000-hour life because it would be in service 100 years before it needed an overhaul. Therefore, an engine for standby service can be rated at a much higher power level. Even if it’s operating life is only 2,000 hours, it could be 20 years before its ﬁ rst major overhaul.

RATING EXAMPLES

As an example of different ratings for the same engine, assume that a certain engine is capable of producing 750 HP at 1800 RPM with factory-speciﬁ ed fuel input. If this engine is to be used in continuous service, driving a pump or generator at a constant power level day in and day out, it might be rated at only 465 HP to achieve the desired life expectancy. This would be an example of a continuous rating.

If the engine drives a generator continuously 24 hours a day 365 days a year, but its load varies with ﬂ uctuations in demand and averages not more than 465 HP, it might be rated at 560 HP to achieve the desired life expectancy. This would be an example of a “prime power” rating.

If the engine drives the generator in standby service, where it operates an average of about 100 hours per year, it might be rated at 750 HP allowable maximum output. This would be an example of a standby rating. At this rating it would have an adequate life expectancy in terms of years of service.

It should be understood that 750 is not the maximum power of which the engine is capable. It is the power capability with a factory-speciﬁ ed fuel input related to

the type of service. The maximum horsepower that can be demonstrated at the factory is substantially in excess of 750 HP.

In some diesel engines, the proper size of injector is installed to match the power rating to the particular type of service and desired engine life. Other types of engines might depend on the governor’s load-limiting adjustment to achieve the same purpose. A drawback of depending on the load-limiting adjustment is that it could be tampered with to raise the power limit and thereby degrade engine life and increase smoke and emissions.

In selecting an engine for a standby application, it is obvious from the foregoing that it would be uneconomical to base your selection on a continuous or prime power rating. You would be paying for an engine that is much larger and has much greater life expectancy than you need. Moreover, such an oversize engine would suffer greater efﬁ ciency loss at part-load, which is the load condition in which a standby electric set is likely to operate most of the time.

While there is general agreement among engine manufacturers on the deﬁ nition of continuous-duty rating, unfortunately there are no industry standards for prime power or standby ratings, and each manufacturer establishes his own rating deﬁ nition. This creates some confusion in making a true comparison of one manufacturer’s deﬁ nition with another’s. However, the following should clear up this confusion.

CONTINUOUS-DUTY RATING

The engine manufacturer establishes a continuousduty rating for each basic engine model, which indicates the amount of horsepower the engine is allowed to deliver when operated 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, while powering a constant ﬁ xed load, at a constant ﬁ xed operating RPM. Generally, for most engine manufacturers, the same basic engine models are used to power mechanical equipment as are used to drive electric generators. Thus, the continuous-duty horsepower rating is the same no matter what type of equipment the engine drives. The 1800 RPM speed of Lugger engines affords long life and reliable operation because it is the same or less than the industrial continuous rated speed of each engine.

When applied to heavy-duty diesel engines, the continuous-duty rating deﬁ nes a power output and speed at which the engine can be operated steadily with a life expectancy of 10,000 hours, or more. The desired life can be expected if the rated power and

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speed are never exceeded.

In electric-set applications, a constant ﬁ xed load is the exception rather than the rule. Therefore, in the interest of proper and efﬁ cient applications of engines to power electric sets, it is necessary to recognize two other types of ratings that is the majority of electric-set applications. These ratings are called prime power and standby power.

PRIME POWER RATING

“Prime power” is the rating for applications in which the electric-set is the sole or normal power source, and in which optimum engine life is to be expected. Examples are small municipalities; remote industrial construction, mining or power installations; and commercial or industrial plants. In prime power application, the electric-set might be operated steadily, day in and day out, but its load varies throughout the day. The prime power rating is somewhat higher than a continuousduty rating to take advantage of the fact that the load is variable. The prime power rating assures that the measured average output over a 24-hour period of operation does not exceed the industrial continuous rating of the engine.

The average output is measured in kilowatt-hours, based on a 24-hour operating period. A kilowatt demand meter can be used to measure the average demand, or the 24-hour average fuel consumption can be measured and converted to kilowatt-hours. If the average horsepower output over a 24-hour operation period exceeds the industrial continuous horsepower rating, the engine life will be decreased proportionately.

STANDBY RATING

In recognition of the limited running time experienced in standby service, the standby power rating is higher than a prime power rating. The engine should be capable of producing its standby rated horsepower continuously for the duration of each electric power failure. Thus a “ﬂ ash” rating would be unacceptable for standby service. A ﬂ ash rating is a rating for a limited period of time such as 5 seconds, 5 minutes, 2 hour, etc. The word “continuously” as used here in the standby context, should not be associated with the continuous-duty rating because continuous-duty ratings and standby ratings are meant for two entirely different applications.

In summary, there are three distinct ratings for engines used to power electric sets:

1. Electric-set continuous rating (same as industrial

continuous rating)

2. Prime power rating

3. Standby rating

RATING BASELINE CONDITIONS

The power output capability of an engine depends on the ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure in the generator room. High air temperature or low air density reduces the maximum power capability of an engine. Therefore, when specifying the required kW capacity of the electric set, also specify the maximum ambient air temperature and the altitude or atmospheric pressure of the site.

Engine power ratings published by engine manufactures are based on operation at some standard, or baseline, temperature and altitude. If the engine will be operated in a different ambient condition, its power capability must be corrected to the actual conditions. That is, a new power rating is calculated based on the numerical relationship of the actual temperature and pressure to the baseline temperature and pressure.

When actual ambient conditions are stated in the speciﬁ cations, the electric-set supplier will take this into account and make the correction in the engine’s power rating before proposing an engine for the electric set.

Two generally accepted ambient condition baselines are used by manufacturers in rating diesel engines:

S.A.E. Conditions Standard Conditions 85˚ 60˚

500 ft. above sea level sea level

Because the S.A.E. conditions more realistically represent average site conditions, Lugger electricset engines are rated at this baseline. The Standard Conditions rating applies to marine and other sea level applications but usually must be corrected for the higher temperature found in engine rooms.

Occasionally, a term such as “standby continuous rating” is seen. Such terminology is confusing and can be misleading because it combines elements of two different ratings. If the term “standby continuous rating” merely means a standby power output that can be produced continuously for the duration of the electric power failure, then it is the same as “standby rating.”

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Engine Noise

SOUND AND NOISE

Sound consists of pressure waves traveling through the air (or water, etc.). Sound pressure waves can be described by their frequency and amplitude. Noise is unwanted sound, usually consisting of many pressure waves at different frequencies and amplitudes.

FREQUENCY

“Frequency” refers to the number of pressure waves per second. It is usually reported as “Hertz” (Hz), which means cycles per second. The human ear can usually detect frequencies from about 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

AMPLITUDE (DB AND DB(A))

“Amplitude” refers to the pressure level of the sound wave. Since sound pressure variations are extremely small and cover a very wide range, they are usually measured on a logarithmic scale called Decibels (dB), instead of conventional pressure units like psi.

Since the human ear has different sensitivities at different frequencies, a 50 dB sound at 200 Hz would not sound as loud as a 50 dB sound at 2000Hz. For that reason noise measurements are usually reported in dB(A). The “A” refers to a set of weighting factors based on the sensitivity of the human ear at each frequency. There are other weighting systems such as dB(B) and dB(C), but most machinery and vehicle sound regulations are in dB(A).

Zero dB(A) approximately equals the lowest possible pressure wave audible to the human ear at each frequency. Each increase in amplitude of 6 dB represents a doubling of sound pressure level. Using the “A” weighting system, a 50 dB(A) sound at 200 Hz should sound approximately as loud as a 50 dB(A) sound at 2000 Hz.

Sound levels from typical sources are shown in Figure 50-1.

ADDING SOUND LEVELS

Since the Decibel scale is logarithmic, Decibels can’t be added directly. When adding sound levels the loudest sound dominates. Adding additional sound sources that are not as loud have relatively little effect. The following chart can be used to add decibel levels from different sources or at different frequencies. Use the chart to add two decibel levels at a time. If you have to add three or more sources, add any two, then add that total to the third, etc.

To use Figure 50-2, ﬁ rst determine the difference

Figure 50-1 - Approximate Sound Levels

between the two values being added. Subtract one value from the other to ﬁ nd the difference, locate the difference on the horizontal (bottom) axis of the chart, draw a straight line up to the curve, then over to the vertical (side) axis of the chart to ﬁ nd out how many decibels to add to the higher of the two original values. For example, if you were adding an 84 dB(A) source to a 90 dB(A) source, the difference would be 90-84=6. From the chart you can see that for a difference of 6 decibels you should add 1 decibel to the highest of the two levels, so you would add 1 dB(A) to 90 dB(A) for a combined level of 91 dB(A) for both sources. If you are adding two equally loud sources, say 90 dB(A) each, the difference would be zero, and you would add 3 dB(A) to 90, for a combined level of 93 dB(A) for both sources.

DISTANCE EFFECTS

Decibel level drops off rapidly with distance. Exactly how much depends on how much the ground and other

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close objects reﬂ ect or absorb sound. In a free ﬁ eld (no absorption or reﬂ ection), sound will drop off by 6 decibels for each doubling of distance from the source. You can use this to estimate the effect of increasing or decreasing the distance to the noise source. For example, a noise source of 90 dB(A) at 7 meters would be about 84 dB(A) at 14 meters, or 96 dB(A) at 3.5 meters.

“ENGINE NOISE” SOURCES

Several different noise sources contribute to what people sometimes consider “engine noise.”

The noise levels reported on the back of each engine performance curve are only the noise radiated directly off the bare engine surfaces. They are averages of several microphones located 1 meter from the engine. They do not include noise from the exhaust system, fan, etc.

Engine surface noise may not be the largest noise source. Exhaust noise is frequently higher, and fan noise can be, in some installations.

Other signiﬁ cant noise sources can include the air intake, drive train, hydraulics, tires, etc.

waves.

Both absorption and shielding are most effective on high-frequency vibrations. That’s why when a car with a loud stereo passes your house, you hear only the bass.

ISOLATION -

Rubber mounts can be used to keep structure-borne noise from being transmitted from the engine or other noise sources to cabs or sheet metal that could transmit the noise to the ear. Any solid connection can transmit structure-borne noise, including throttle levers, exhaust system brackets, etc.

Isolating noise sources (such as engines and mufﬂ ers) can be effective. But if the operator is enclosed in a cab, isolating the cab can provide the best results.

STIFFENING -

When structure-borne or air-borne noise is transmitted to cabs, chassis or shields, resonant vibrations can be excited in sheet metal panels, amplifying the noise. Stiffening panels by adding stamped-in or added-on bases can help detune resonant frequencies and reduce amplitudes.

NOISE TREATMENT - GENERAL

Noise can be transmitted from any noise-generating component in the form of “air-borne” noise or “structure-borne” noise. Air-borne noise is transmitted directly from the surfaces of the component through the air to the ear. Structure-borne noise is transmitted through the engine mounts or other solid connections to the cab or chassis in the form of vibration, then from there it goes through the air to the ear.

Most noise treatments work on either structure-borne or air-borne noise in one of the following ways:

SOURCE REDUCTION-

Generating less noise at the source, by specifying quieter engines, transmissions, tires, etc.

SHIELDING -

A heavy wall that will not vibrate easily, placed between the noise source and the ear, can help block the pressure waves. This is what concrete “noise fences” along highways do.

Heavy, solid, well-damped materials (such as concrete, lead, or heavy rubber) make the best shields.

DAMPING -

Sometimes resonant vibrations in sheet metal panels can be absorbed by adding layers of damping materials (such as rubber or tar-like substances) to the panels. This is why automotive undercoating makes cars quieter.

SEPARATION -

Dominant noise sources should be physically separated so they do not add together. For example, if the engine surfaces and the exhaust pipe produce 90 dB(A) each, they will produce 93 dB(A) together. But if the exhaust pipe is routed to the opposite end of a large machine, the noise at either end will be close to 90 dB(A).

NOISE TREATMENT - SPECIFIC

NOISE SOURCE IDENTIFICATION

The most important rule in noise treatment is to identify the noisiest component, and concentrate your control efforts on it. Even if you completely eliminate the second or third noisiest source it can’t have more than a few dB(A) effect. If the noise goes down 3 dB(A) or

Lighter shield materials (such as sheet steel) are most effective when used in combination with absorptive material and/or damping.

ABSORPTION -

Plastic foam, fabric, or other soft porous materials can quiet sound by absorbing some of the sound pressure

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more when one source is eliminated, it is larger than all other sources combined. A reduction of 1 or 2 dB(A) may also be signiﬁ cant if there are many sources close in amplitude.

You can identify the primary noise source by temporarily removing or treating each source one at a time. Fan noise is easy to check by removing the fan temporarily. To isolate transmission or drive train noise, disconnect the clutch. To isolate exhaust or intake noise, reroute them away from the machine to check their contribution.

EXHAUST NOISE

Exhaust noise is the loudest untreated noise source on most applications and is also the easiest to treat. Standard mufﬂ ers can reduce exhaust pipe noise by 10-15 dB(A) through absorption. Quieter “residential” mufﬂ ers are also available. The best source of mufﬂ er performance information is your mufﬂ er supplier. The exhaust pipe should direct exhaust ﬂ ow away from the cab, the operator, and bystanders’ ear level.

For ultra-quiet installations it may be necessary to wrap the mufﬂ er with high-temperature (ceramic) fabric and a sheet metal cover, to shield and absorb air-borne “skin-noise” from the mufﬂ er shell.

The mufﬂ er can also transmit structural noise to the cab or frame. Avoid bracketing the mufﬂ er or exhaust pipes to the cab or frame if possible. If it’s necessary to support the mufﬂ er on the cab or frame, isolate the exhaust system using ﬂ exible exhaust connectors to break the structural vibration path, or use rubberized exhaust pipe hangers such as used on passenger cars.

FAN NOISE

Fan noise, due to a large-diameter fan turning at high rpm, can be greater than noise coming from the exhaust pipe or engine compartment. Fan noise can be controlled by following these guidelines:

Figure 50-2 - Adding Decibel Levels

• Use shielding and absorption to reduce fan noise at

the source.

ENGINE AIR-BORNE NOISE

Lugger engines are among the quietest in the industry. Generally speaking, engines run somewhat quieter at lower speeds, but other than reducing speed, there is very little you can do to reduce engine surface noise at the source.

The most effective way to treat engine surface noise is by using an enclosure lined with absorptive materials. Sound enclosures work best when as much of the machine as possible is contained within the enclosure. Ideally, the entire machine should be enclosed. This

• Run the fan as slow as possible. Fan tip speeds (fan rpm x circumference) of 12,000 feet per minute or less are recommended for quiet installations. If the fan is running over 16,000 fpm, it may be the loudest noise source on the machine.

• Follow the fan application guidelines in the Cooling Section of this manual to maximize fan efﬁ ciency. For the same air ﬂ ow, an efﬁ cient fan can be run slower than an inefﬁ cient fan. Large fans at slow rpm are usually quieter than small fans at high rpm for the same air ﬂ ow.

• Air obstructions cause noise when a fan blade moves past them, particularly on the inlet side. Keep the fan at least 1/2 to 1 blade width back from the radiator and well away from engine obstructions (such as alternator pulleys, hoses, etc.).

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has the added advantage of helping to silence any other noise sources (such as the fan, transmission, etc.) that are also located in the enclosure. (See Figure 50-3).

To provide effective shielding, the enclosure should be sealed as completely as possible, except for air ﬂ ow openings. Openings for air ﬂ ow should be generous, but they should be bafﬂ ed to direct air ﬂ ow over sound absorbing materials and away from ear level.

The use of a blower fan should be strongly considered to control engine compartment temperatures. Wrapping and shielding of exhaust components will also help. Exhaust should be routed out of the compartment along with the cooling air ﬂ ow so it does not recirculate in the engine compartment. With blower fans (as shown) it should exit in the front. With suction fans, exhaust should exit in the rear.

With blower fans, the air cleaner inlet can be taken from within the engine compartment. With suction fans, it should be taken from in front of the radiator, but within the front sound shield.

Care must be taken to make sure the sound absorbent materials used can tolerate the high temperatures that can be present in the engine compartment. How high the temperature will be depends on your installation. Exhaust gases or hot components must be kept away from any ﬂ ammable sound absorbent material. Sound absorbent material should be used cautiously below the engine, particularly if any oil leaks are present. Oilsoaked absorptive material can be combustible.

4-cylinder engines produce signiﬁ cantly less vibration than competitive 4-cylinder engines.

Well-matched rubber engine mounts can also help reduce structural noise transmission. However, poorly matched rubber mounts can be worse than solid mounts. Refer to the Engine Mounting section of this manual for mount design guidelines. Remember that other solid connections such as rigid exhaust pipes will prevent rubber mounts from working properly, and will transmit structure-borne noise themselves.

AIR INTAKE NOISE

Air intake noise is usually adequately mufﬂ ed by using a properly sized canister type air cleaner. If you are using a small or “throw-away” type air cleaner and air intake noise is a dominant noise source, consider changing to a canister type.

ENGINE STRUCTURE-BORNE NOISE

Engines can also transmit structure-borne noise from vibration to frames and cabs. Lugger fully balanced

Figure 50-3 - Sound Absorbing Enclosure

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Fuel System Components

1. Fuel tank, vent, and ﬁ ller pipe

2. Fuel shutoff valve

3. Fuel supply line

4. Primary fuel/water separator ﬁ lter

5. Engine fuel lift pump

6. Secondary engine fuel ﬁ lter

7. Fuel injection pump, and injectors

8. Fuel return line

Misc. notes:

- No galvanized fuel tanks

- All fuel hoses used on boats must have U.S. Coast Guard approved “type A” or “type A1” hoses.

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Tank vent line

Fuel return

line

Shutoff

Fuel tank

valve

Injector pump

Fuel supply line

Water

Engine fuel

pump

Final engine

ﬁ lter

Separator valve

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DIESEL FUEL TERMINOLOGY

• Pour Point: Is 3˚ C (37.4˚ F) above the temperature at which fuel will just ﬂ ow under its own weight, under test conditions.

FUEL REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS

• The properties of diesel fuels are deﬁ ned by ASTM

D-975 designation for diesel fuels. These must be controlled to insure good engine operation. Example:

• Cloud Point: Is the highest temperature at which the ﬁ rst trace of parafﬁ n wax visibly forms in the fuel. Used as an indicator of when fuel ﬁ lter blockage might occur.

• Viscosity: A measure of resistance to ﬂ uid ﬂ ow. Is markedly affected by temperature. Also, if temperature is very low, fuel pump lubricity problem could occur.

• Flash Point: Temperature at which fuel ignites with a test ﬂ ame

• Sulphur Content: Results from crude oil origin, its reﬁ ning or treatment. Diesel fuels, 1-D and 2-D call for 0.5% or less sulphur content. If higher, must increase oil change frequency. Sulphur content should be as low as possible to avoid premature wear and minimize noxious emissions.

• Ash: In distillate fuel, ash content occurs in elements of the base crude. Can be augmented by contamination from sea water or dusty pipe lines.

FUEL DEFINITIONS

• Pour Point • Flash point

- Distillation

- Cetane Number

- Sulphur Content

- Cloud Point

• Ambient temperature, engine speed and load all

inﬂ uence the selection of diesel fuel.

• A reputable fuel oil supplier can assure that the fuel received, meets the recommended diesel fuel properties shown including lubricity.

• Cetane number requirements:

- 45 cetane minimum

- During winter use a higher cetane rating for better starting.

• Current fuel has sulphur content of 0.5% - 0.29%. New fuel will have 0.05% sulphur

- Other elements are contained in diesel fuel, but sulphur and water are of greater concern. There is no way to detect the damage contaminated fuel is causing until the damage is done

- Reduce oil change intervals by one-half when known sulphur content exceeds 0.5%

• Cloud Point • Carbon Residue

• Viscosity • Sulfur

• Density • Ash

Fuel No. 4

SERVICE TIPS

• Water content:

- Water separators can be used. Must ensure that it

does not restrict fuel ﬂ ow.

- Test on regular basis.

• Additives:

- John Deere anti-gel reduces cloud point (do not use alcohol).

- Biocide will eliminate microbial growth in both storage tank and fuel supply system, preventing buildup in nozzles, lines and F.I. pumps.

- Higher than “normal” sulphur in fuel reacts differently:

• Variations in ambient humidity, engine temperature, and horsepower ranges, affect the degree of damage

• Ambient humidity, plus internal engine condensation rate, promotes damaging

FUEL

Do’s Don’ts

• Maintain Cooling • Use Fuel with More System… Voids Gas Than 0.5% Sulfur

• If Water Separator is • Use Alcohol to Used…Do Not Restrict Reduce Cloudpoint Fuel Flow

• Biocide to Keep Microbe Free

Fuel No. 5

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sulfuric acid formation.

• Lower horsepower engines suggests less fuel consumption:

- Less fuel means less sulphur passing through engine.

- Good preventive maintenance program of oil and ﬁ lter change intervals, should reduce contamination.

• Low engine operating temperature does not allow the sulphur to get to a gaseous state, so keep the cooling system temperature within range of highest operating efﬁ ciency.

• If only low-sulphur fuels are available, add John Deere TY22030 Diesel Fuel Conditioner for lubrication. Low sulphur fuels will have little lubricating properties.

FUEL SPECIFICATIONS

Temperature

Below Freezing Above Freezing

Use #1

diesel fuel

Fuel No. 6

Use #2

diesel fuel

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The Lubrication System

The lubrication system consists of the following:

- Oil pump

- Oil ﬁ lter

- Pressure regulating valve

- By-pass valve

- Oil cooler

THE

LUBRICATING OIL MUST:

1. Lubricate

2. Cool

3. Seal

4. Clean

5. Protect

Lube No.2

ENGINE OIL PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS

• Operator’s Manual will give type

• Designed to operate at 115˚C (240˚F), higher if

equipped with oil cooler

• Oil ratings

- SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers)

- API (American Petroleum Institute)

- MIL (U.S. Military Speciﬁ cations)

Lube No.1

LUBRICATING OIL FUNCTIONS

• Oils do wear out

• Extended service:

- Depletes the additives

- Oxidizes the base oil to form harmful compounds

• Lube oils must:

- Keep a protective oil ﬁ lm on moving parts

- Resist high temperatures

- Prevent corrosion and rusting

- Prevent ring sticking

- Prevent sludge formation

- Flow easily at low temperatures

- Resist breakdown after prolonged wear

- ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials)

• Oil requirements

- Diesel ...2 cycle versus 4 cycle

- Gasoline

• Letter designations

- S (spark ignition)

- C (compression ignition)

• Growth of oil standards

- CA ...moderate duty, 1940 & 50’s high quality fuel ... obsolete

- CB ...moderate duty, 1949, high sulfur fuel ... obsolete

- CC ...moderate duty to severe duty, turbocharged, 1961 ...obsolete

- CD ...severe duty, supercharged, 1955 ... active

- CE ...severe duty, 1983, high speed and load operations ... active

- Neutralize the affects of acids

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LUGGER ENGINE OIL PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS

• Found in operator’s manual (O.M.)

• John Deere engines designed to operate with oil

temperature as high as 115˚ C (240˚ F)

• Higher output engines are equipped with oil coolers to maintain oil temperature below this limit

• Recommended API service classiﬁ cation:

- CH - 4

- CI - 4

- CI - 4+

LUGGER NEEDS

API MIL

SB/CA MIL-L-2104A SC/CB SC/CC MIL-L-2104B SE/CD SF/CE MIL-L-45199 CH-4 15-40 Pref. CI-4

- 15-40

- MIL-L2104F is also current spec

- See O.M. for Arctic oil viscosity grades

- Multi weight preferred

• Base oil suppliers have to formulate oil to John Deere specs

• Additionally, use a special Lubrisol additive package to base oil to provide the extra protection required of today’s high speed engines.

• Ash tolerance:

- All the John Deere series of engines can tolerate ash levels up to 1 1/2%

- Use oils with less than 1%

• Engines shipped “wet”

- Break-in oil (10w30) - API rating: CC or CD

- Factory ﬁ ll oil has a dye that gives a yellowish color under black light.

- High in zinc dithiophosphate anti-scuff additives.

Note: The use of an oil sampling program to help

monitor engine performance and identify potential problems is recommended. OIL SCAN™ is John Deere’s oil sampling program.

OIL RATINGS

Lube No. 4

Lube No. 5

LUBRICATING OIL

Lubricating oil for Lugger engines should conform to one of the following oil performance levels:

API SERVICE Classifications CH - 4 CI - 4 CI - 4+

• SAE - Defines Viscosity

• API - Defines Quality

• MIL - Denotes Military Specifications

• ASTM - Mirrors API

Lube No. 3

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* Exceeds API Service Classification CE and passed John Deere (JDQ78) tests at high temperatures. Also meets engine oil performance requirements of CE/SG, C-3, to C-2, and MIL-L-2104D/E specifications.

Europe: CCMC specification D4 or D5

Lube No. 6

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ENGINE INSTALLATION ANGLES TO ENSURE ADEQUATE LUBRICATION

• Continuous - 15˚ (nose up), (static)

0˚ (nose down), (static)

• Operational Angularity:

- Continuous = 20˚

- Intermittent (max. any direction = 30˚

• Stable oil pressure must be maintained at all times

PROCEDURE TO MARK DIPSTICK

• If engine is installed at nose-up angle of 5˚ or more,

engine dipstick must be re-marked

• Re-mark procedure:

Lube No. 9

- Fill and check oil level when engine is in a level

position

- After 5˚ nose-up installation recheck dipstick mark and

oil level.

- Remark dipstick to the new oil level.

OPTIONAL DIPSTICK

• Elongated tube extends into sump

• Oil level can be checked while engine is running

Lube No. 10

Lube No. 11

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The Cooling System

Cooling system consists of:

- Engine water pump

- Thermostats

- Oil cooler

- Sea water pump

- Heat exchanger

- Keel cooler

- Expansion tank

COOLING SYSTEM PURPOSE

• Internal combustion engines produce heat during

combustion of fuel.

• The cooling system controls the temperature of the

engine within the range of highest operating efﬁ ciency.

Cool No. 1

THE PURPOSE OF THE

COOLING SYSTEM...

• Adequate cooling is, therefore, essential to engine life.

CLOSED SYSTEM AND OPEN SYSTEM COOLING

• Closed system can be either heat exchanger or keel

cooler.

• Open system deﬁ nitely not recommended.

Note: “Closed” cooling system also known as “fresh water” cooling; i.e., sea water (raw water) does not enter engine coolant galleries.

to control the temperature of

the engine within the range of

highest operating efficiency

Cool No. 2

MARINE ENGINE COOLING

Closed System

A. Heat Exchanger

B. Keel Cooler

Open System

Not Recommended

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Cool No. 3

Page 39

RAW WATER SYSTEM IMPORTANCE

• Cools engine coolant:

- Through heat exchanger

- Keel cooler

COOLING MEDIUM

Cooling Medium is flotation

• Cools component skin temperature:

- Exhaust manifold

- Exhaust elbow

- Exhaust gases (if wet)

• Raw water (ﬂ otation water) - is the water outside hull,

in which vessel ﬂ oats

PLUMBING, LOCATION, AND DRIVE OF SEA (RAW) WATER PUMPS

• Sea water must be plumbed to the engine driven sea

water pump

• Engine auxiliary drive is used to drive sea water pump

on Lugger engines

– Driven off engine coolant pump pulley (fan drive)

- Uses less than 2 hp to drive

- Includes belt guard

• Inlet circuit functions:

or external water provided through

“Raw” Water System, sometimes

referred to as “Sea” Water System.

Cool No. 4

- Sea water lines must be large enough to provide ﬂ ow

to the pump within restriction guidelines.

- A seacock is needed to shut off the sea water ﬂ ow

during maintenance.

- Sea water strainers are required to keep foreign

materials from reaching the pump.

- A sea water scoop is recommended to protect the

inlet opening.

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Technical Bulletin: L423

Prevention of cylinder liner erosion

in wet sleeve diesel engines.

part. Over a period of time, this pitting may progress completely through the cylinder liner. This allows coolant to enter the combustion chamber. Engine failure or other serious damage will result.

Unprotected engines with low quality water as coolant can have liner failure in as few as 500 hours.

PROPER COOLANT RETARDS EROSION

C - Vapor Bubbles

A - Cylinder Liner B - Engine Coolant

Note: This bulletin is based on recommendations Alaska Diesel Electric makes for our Lugger engines used in propulsion and generator applications. Consult your owners manual for detailed information on your model. Owners of other engine brands should consult their dealer for coolant system recommendations.

D - Collapsing Bubble

WHAT CAUSES LINER EROSION (PITTING)

Most heavy-duty diesel engines have wet-sleeve type cylinder liners. These liners are replaceable inserts in the engine block that the piston rides up and down within. Being replaceable, they allow the engine to be overhauled without the engine block being removed from the vessel. The block can be rebuilt in place without ever going to a machine shop. The cylinder liner is surrounded by engine coolant to dissipate combustion heat.

The liners are made of extremely durable iron alloy. They resist large ﬂ uctuations in heat, friction and combustion detonation. Ironically, one of their biggest enemies is tiny vapor bubbles in the surrounding engine coolant.

When the piston reaches the top of its stroke, compressed fuel and air ignite. The impact causes the liner walls (A) to vibrate, sending pressure waves into the coolant (B). These waves cause vapor bubbles (C) to form.

These tiny vapor bubbles collect on the surface of metal parts. As the bubbles collapse (pop), a microscopic piece of metal is eroded from the metal

a. Quality water

b. Ethylene glycol concentrate (EGC) commonly known

as antifreeze.

c. Supplemental coolant additives (SCA’s).

This mixture must be used year round to protect against freezing, boil-over, liner erosion or pitting and to provide a stable, noncorrosive environment for cooling system components.

Ethylene glycol concentrate (antifreeze) normally DOES NOT contain the SCA chemical inhibitors needed to control liner pitting.

Larger Lugger engines, (6108, 6125, 6140, 6170, 12V140) are equipped with a spin-on coolant ﬁ lter- conditioner element which provides the SCA’s to protect your cylinder liners.

The coolant ﬁ lter-conditioner element performs two functions at once:

The outer paper element ﬁ lters out rust, scale or dirt particles in the coolant.

The inner element releases SCA chemicals into the coolant to maintain a proper acid/alkaline balance, inhibit corrosion and suppress erosion pitting. The chemicals in the additives reduce the quantity of vapor bubbles. SCA also forms a protective ﬁ lm on the metal engine parts which act as a barrier against collapsing vapor bubbles.

WATER QUALITY

To meet cooling system protection requirements, the coolant mixture must consist of:

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Distilled, deionized, soft water is preferred for use in cooling systems. Bottled distilled water from a food store or water supplier is recommended. Tap water often has a high mineral content. Tap water should

NEVER be put in a cooling system unless ﬁ rst

tested by an analytical laboratory that does water testing. See your Yellow Pages.

Here are acceptable water standards

Contaminates Parts/ Grains/ Million Gallon

Maximum Chlorides 40 2.5 Maximum Sulfates 100 5.9 Max Dissolved Solids 340 20 Max Total Hardness 170 10 PH level 5.5 to 9.0

If chlorides, sulfates or total dissolved solids are higher than the above given speciﬁ cation, the water must be distilled, demineralized, or deionized before it is used in a cooling system.

If total hardness is higher than 170 ppm and all other parameters are within the given speciﬁ cations, the water must be softened before it is used to make coolant solution.

ETHYLENE GLYCOL CONCENTRATE (ANTIFREEZE)

Ethylene glycol coolant concentrate (EGC) is commonly mixed with water to produce an engine coolant with a low freeze point and high boiling point.

Low silicate EGC is recommended for diesel engines. Use an EGC that meets ASTM D 4985p, SAEJ1941, D5345, D6210.

EGC is concentrated and should be mixed to the following speciﬁ cation.

H2O EGC Freeze Boiling % % Point Point

Optimum 50% 50% –37°C +109°C –34° F +226° F

Minimum 60% 40% –24°C +106°C –12° F +222° F

Maximum 40% 60% –52°C +111°C –62° F +232° F

If additional coolant solution needs to be added to the engine due to leaks or loss, the glycol concentration should be checked with a hydrometer to assure that the desired freeze point is maintained.

Do not use methyl alcohol or methoxy propanol based EGC. These concentrates are not compatible

with chemicals used in supplemental coolant additives. Damage can occur to rubber seals on cylinder liners which are in contact with coolant.

Do not use an EGC containing sealer or stop-leak additives.

Do not use EGC containing more than 0.1% anhydrous metasilicate. This type of concentrate,

which is intended for use in aluminum engines, may cause a gel-like deposit to form that reduces heat transfer and coolant ﬂ ow.

CAUTION: EGC (Antifreeze) is ﬂ ammable,

poisonous and harmful to the skin and eyes. Follow the instructions and warnings on the

container carefully and keep out of reach of children

and pets.

SUPPLEMENTAL COOLANT ADDITIVE (SCA)

Supplemental coolant additive (SCA) is a vital part of your engines coolant mixture. It is critical in engines with wet sleeve type cylinder liners. SCAs can be added to the coolant in one of two ways:

1. added to the engine coolant mixture by the operator.

2. automatically added by the engine’s spin-on coolant

ﬁ lter conditioner.

Engines without coolant ﬁ lter conditioners.

If your engine does not have a coolant ﬁ lter conditioner, you will have to add the Supplemental Coolant Additive to the engine’s coolant mixture.

Always mix the solution of ethylene glycol concentrate (antifreeze) with quality water in a clean container before adding the SCA’s. Then add the required amount of SCA to the mixture. Then add the resulting mixture to the engine cooling system.

Never pour cold coolant into a hot engine, as it may crack engine block or cylinder head.

Do not add more SCA than recommended. Coolant solutions with higher than recommended SCA concentrations can cause silicate-dropout. When this happens, a gel-type deposit is created which retards heat transfer and coolant ﬂ ow.

For Lugger engines: liquid SCA must be added at a rate of 3%, by volume, to the coolant mixture. (30 mL of SCA per Liter of H2O/EGC mixture. 1.0 ﬂ uid oz of SCA per quart of H2O/EGC)

SCA is available from your Northern Lights/Lugger dealer in two sizes.

Pint - Part No 20-00002

1/2 gallon - Part No 20-00003

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Engines with coolant ﬁ lter conditioners

If your engine has a coolant-conditioner, additional SCA’s should NOT be manually added to the mixture of EGC and water when initially ﬁ lling the engine’s cooling system. A high SCA concentration will result and can cause silicate-dropout problems.

The only exception to this rule is on marine engines with keel coolers or industrial engines with heat recovery or other special cooling systems. These special systems have large coolant capacities. The SCA in the spin on ﬁ lter may not be able to treat the large volume of coolant. The operator must use a test kit strip to determine the amount of additional SCA’s that needs to be added to the cooling system.

If additional SCA’s are needed, prepare a mixture as described above (50%H2O/50%EGC +3%SCA).

Add the resulting mixture to the cooling system in one quart (liter) increments. Run the engine for 1 hour and retest the coolant. Repeat the process until the test strips show the SCA concentration meets recommended levels.

If your engine has a coolant conditioner, ALWAYS change the element according to your owner’s manual and note the change in your engine maintenance log.

Coolant test kits are available to allow on-site evaluation of the coolant condition. The kits use small strips of paper which are dipped into the coolant. The paper changes color and indicates the SCA concentration. It also indicates the amount of EGC (antifreeze).

Test kits are available through your Northern Lights or Lugger Dealer.

4 Pack - Part No.................20-00005

50 Pack - Part No...............20-00010

CAUTION: The cooling water in the engine reaches extremely high temperatures. You

must use extreme caution when working on hot engines to avoid burns. Allow the engine to cool before working on the cooling system. Open the ﬁ ller cap carefully, using protective clothing.

Other Technical Bulletins are available from Alaska Diesel Electric. Visit you Lugger/Northern Lights dealer for more information and application advice.

All Engines: DO NOT use any coolant system additives

containing soluble oil.

CAUTION: Supplemental coolant additive contains alkali and is poisonous and harmful

to the skin and eyes. Follow the instructions and warnings on the container carefully and keep out of reach of children and pets.

PREMIXED COOLING FLUID

Premixed cooling ﬂ uids are marketed for use in the engine cooling system. Cooling ﬂ uid contains the proper mixture of quality water, low silicate antifreeze and supplemental coolant additives. This cooling ﬂ uid protects the engine against freezing down to –35°F (–37°C) .

Important: Additional SCA’s should NOT be added to

premixed engine cooling ﬂ uid on initial ﬁ ll up. It may be necessary to add SCA later if testing indicates the SCA level in the cooling ﬂ uid is depleted.

Important: Do not use premixed engine cooling ﬂ uid

and a spin-on coolant element together.

Premixed cooling ﬂ uid is available from your Northern Lights or Lugger Dealer in one gallon containers (Part Number 20-00001)

COOLANT TESTING

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ALIGNMENT

• When aligning the engine, check both the marine gear output ﬂ ange bore and face alignment with the mating propeller shaft ﬂ ange.

• The bore alignment must be exact (zero misalignment) to allow the two ﬂ anges to mate together.

- The ﬂ anges should never be forced to ﬁ t.

- The face alignment must be within 0.13 mm (0.005 in.) when checked with a feeler gauge at the top, bottom, and both sides.

• Final alignment should not be done until the vessel is in the water and loaded to its normal draft. A solid mounting system should fall within the alignment limits when rechecked. Because a ﬂ exible system moves when the engine is run, it cannot be rechecked. Each time ﬂ exible shafting is disconnected, the engine must be realigned.

VIBRATION

• Two types of vibrations generated to engine and driveline.

VIBRATION

TORSIONAL LINEAR

Speed Specific All Speeds Variation in Engine Torques Unbalance or Alignment Vibration is not felt Shakes the Boat

Failures include: Failures include: Damper Brackets Crankshaft Vibration Isolators Engine Gear Train Engine Mounted Instruments Torsional Couplings Noise Marine Gears Hull Vibration Gear Clatter at Idle

- Linear vibration

- Torsional vibration

• Linear vibration is caused when the engine is out of alignment, or by an out-of-balance condition in the shafting or propeller.

-Weak hull structure can also cause vibration because the engine is not held in alignment.

- Reinforcing the engine stringers or adding cross ties will help stiffen the supporting structure.

• A torsional analysis is a mathematical study of the rotating masses and inertias of the engine, marine gear and drive system.

- Marine classiﬁ cation societies, ABS, Lloyd’s, Bureau Veritas, require a torsional analysis of a propulsion or gen-set system as part of their approval process. The acceptable limits are set by each society.

- Marine gear manufacturers may also request a torsional analysis.

• Most common torsional vibration complaint in a marine propulsion system is marine gear clatter at low speeds.

- Problem is usually caused by resetting the engine idle speed below normal factory recommended idle rpm.

- May be eliminated by raising the idle speed to the normal rpm and using a trolling valve in the marine gear to reduce propeller rpm at idle.

• Other recommendations in application manual.

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HEAD BOLT TORQUE-TO-YIELD TIGHTENING PROCEDURE

• Lubricate bolts with clean SAE30 engine oil (DO NOT use multi-viscosity oils as lubricity may dissipate during tightening sequence, and install in their proper locations

• Tighten bolt No. 17 to 80 N•m (60 lb-ft). Sequentially (Tighten all bolts to 80 N•m [60 lb-ft] starting at bolt No. 1 through bolt No. 26)

• Using an oil proof marker, scribe a line parallel to the crankshaft across the entire top of each bolt head. This line will be used as a reference mark

• IMPORTANT: If a bolt is accidentally tightened more than 90˚ in any one sequence, DO NOT loosen bolt but make adjustments in the next tightening sequence

• Sequentially (start at bolt No. 1 and proceed through bolt No. 26) turn each bolt approximately 90˚. Line on top of bolt will be about perpendicular to crankshaft

• Again, sequentially (start at bolt No. 1 and proceed through bolt No. 26) turn each bolt approximately 90˚. Line on top of bolt will again be about parallel to crankshaft

TORQUE-TO-YIELD

• IMPORTANT: Head bolts MUST NOT be tightened more than a total of 270˚±5˚

• Finally, sequentially (start at bolt No. 1 and proceed through bolt No. 26) turn each bolt approximately 90˚, SO THAT LINE ON TOP OF BOLT IS AS CLOSE AS POSSIBLE TO BEING PERPENDICULAR TO THE CRANKSHAFT. It is not necessary to obtain the ﬁ nal turn in one swing of the wrench. TOTAL AMOUNT OF TURN FROM STEPS 4, 5, AND 6 IS 270˚ ± 5˚

• Average clamp loads per bolt, with this procedure is 25,000 lbs vs. 23,500 lb (torque-turn)

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Application Formulas

Desired Data Single Phase Three Phase

Kilo Volt - Volts x AMPS KW 1.73 x volts x AMPS KW Amperes (KVA) 1000 P.F. 1000 P.F.

Kilowatts Volts x AMPS x P.F. (KW) 1000 1000

Power Factor KW KW (P.F.) KVA KVA

Amperes - When KW x 1000 KW x 1000 KW is known Volts x P.F. 1.73 x Volts x P.F.

Amperes - When KVA x 1000 KVA x 1000 KVA is known Volts 1.73 x Volts

Required Prime KW Mover H.P. Alternator Efficiency x .746

Frequency Number of Poles x RPM (Hertz) 120

Revolutions Per Hertz x 120 Minute (RPM) Number of Poles

Voltage Regulation No Load Voltage - Full Load Voltage x 100 (in %) Full Load Voltage

or KVA x P.F.

1.73 x Volts x AMPS x P.F. or KVA x P.F.

Speed Regulation No Load RPM - Full Load RPM x 100 (in %) Full Load RPM

Voltage Dip Factor 100% - Voltage Dip % (motor starting) 100

( )

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Alternator Full Load Ratings

FULL LOAD AMPERAGE RATING - UNITY (100%) POWER FACTOR

SINGLE PHASE GENERATORS

KVA 115V 120V 240V

2.5 22.0 21.0 11.0

3.0 26.0 25.0 13.0

3.5 30.0 29.0 15.0

5.0 43.0 42.0 22.0

6.25 54.0 52.0 27.0

7.5 65.0 63.0 33.0

10.0 87.0 83.0 43.0

12.5 109.0 104.0 54.0

15.0 130.0 125.0 65.0

18.75 163.0 156.0 82.0

25.0 217.0 208.0 109.0

31.25 272.0 260.0 136.0

37.5 326.0 313.0 163.0

43.75 380.0 365.0 190.0

50.0 435.0 417.0 217.0

62.5 543.0 521.0 272.0

75.0 652.0 625.0 326.0

93.8 816.0 782.0 408.0

125.0 1087.0 1041.0 543.0

FULL LOAD AMPERAGE RATINGS - 80% POWER FACTOR

THREE PHASE GENERATORS

KVA KW 208V 220V 230V 240V 380V 416V 440V 460V 480V 600V

6.3 5 18 17 16 15 10 9 8 8 8 6

9.4 7 26 25 24 23 14 13 12 12 11 9

12.5 10 35 33 31 30 19 17 16 16 15 -

18.7 15 52 49 47 45 28 26 25 24 23 18

25.0 20 69 66 63 60 38 35 33 31 30 24

31.3 25 87 82 79 79 48 43 41 39 38 30

37.5 30 104 99 94 90 57 52 49 47 45 36

50.0 40 139 131 126 120 76 69 66 63 60 48

62.5 50 174 164 157 150 95 87 82 78 75 61

75.0 60 208 197 188 180 114 104 99 94 90 72

93.8 75 260 246 235 226 143 130 123 118 113 90

125.0 100 374 328 314 301 190 174 164 157 150 120

156.0 125 433 410 392 375 237 217 205 196 188 150

187.0 150 519 491 469 450 285 260 246 235 225 180

219.0 175 608 575 550 527 333 304 288 275 263 211

250.0 200 694 657 628 601 380 347 328 314 301 241

312.0 250 866 819 783 751 475 433 410 392 375 300

375.0 300 1040 985 941 902 570 521 493 471 451 361

438.0 350 1217 1151 1101 1055 666 609 575 550 528 430

500.0 400 1390 1314 1257 1204 761 695 657 628 602 482

656.0 525 1820 1720 1646 1578 997 910 860 823 789 631

750.0 600 2082 1968 1883 1804 1139 1041 984 941 902 722

900.0 725 2428 2296 2197 2105 1329 1214 1148 1098 1052 842

1030.0 825 2776 2624 2510 2406 1519 1388 1312 1255 1203 962

1155.0 925 3122 2952 2824 2706 1709 1561 1476 1412 1353 1083

1340.0 1075 3470 3280 3138 3007 1899 1735 1640 1569 1504 1203

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Motor Full Load Current Data

LOCKED-ROTOR INDICATING CODE LETTERS

Kilovolt-Amperes per Kilovolt-Amperes Per Code Horsepower with Code Horsepower with Letter Locked Rotor Letter Locked Rotor

A 0-3.14 L 9.0-9.99 B 3.15-3.54 M 10.0-11.19 C 3.55-3.99 N 11.2-12.49 D 4.0-4.49 P 12.5-13.99 E 4.5-4.99 R 14.0-15.99 F 5.0-5.59 S 16.0-17.00 G 5.6-6.29 T 18.0-19.99 H 6.3-7.09 U 29.0-22.39 J 7.1-7.99 V 22.4 and up K 8.0-8.99

FULL LOAD CURRENTS THREE-PHASE ALTERNATING-

CURRENT MOTORS

The following values of full-load currents are typical for motors running at speeds usual for belted motors and motors with normal torque characteristics.

Motors built for low speeds (1200 rpm or less) or high torques may require more running current, and multispeed motors will have full-load current varying with speed. In these cases, the nameplate current rating shall be used.

FULL LOAD CURRENTS IN AMPERES, SINGLE-PHASE

ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS

The following values of full-load currents are for motors running at usual speeds and motors with normal torque characteristecs. Motors built for especially low speeds or high torques may have higher full-load currents, and multispeed motors will have full-load current varying with speed, in which case the namplate current ratings shall be used.

The voltage listed are rated motor voltages. The currents listed shall be permitted for system voltage ranges of 110 to 120 and 220 to 240 volts.

Horsepower 115 Volts 200 Volts 208 Volts 230 Volts

1/6 4.4 2.5 2.4 2.2 1/4 5.8 3.3 3.2 2.9 1/3 7.2 4.1 4.0 3.6 1/2 9.8 5.6 5.4 4.9 3/4 13.8 7.9 7.6 6.9 1 16 9.2 8.8 8.0 1-1/2 20 11.5 11.0 10 2 24 13.8 13.2 12 3 34 19.6 18.7 17 5 56 32.2 30.8 28 7-1/2 80 46.0 44.0 40 10 100 57.5 55.0 50

The voltage listed are rated motor voltages. The currents listed shall be permitted for system voltage ranges of 110 - 120, 220 - 240, 440 - 480, & 550 - 600 volts.

Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor

Induction Type

(Amperes)

115 200 208 230 460 575 2300 230 460 575 2300 Horsepower Volts Volts Volts Volts Volts Volts Volts Volts Volts Volts Volts

1/2 4.4 2.5 2.4 2.2 1.1 0.9 - - - - 3/4 6.4 3.7 3.5 3.2 1.6 1.3 - - - - 1 8.4 4.8 4.6 4.2 2.1 1.7 - - - - 1 1/2 12.0 6.9 6.6 6.0 3.0 2.4 - - - - 2 13.6 7.8 7.5 6.8 3.4 2.7 - - - - 3 - 11.0 10.6 9.6 4.8 3.9 - - - - 5 - 17.5 16.7 15.2 7.6 6.1 - - - - 7 1/2 - 25.3 24.2 22 11 9 - - - - -

10 - 32.2 30.8 28 14 11 - - - - 15 - 48.3 46.2 42 21 17 - - - - 20 - 62.1 59.4 54 27 22 - - - - 25 - 78.2 74.8 68 34 27 - 53 26 21 30 - 92 88 80 40 32 - 63 32 26 40 - 120 114 104 52 41 - 83 41 33 -

50 - 150 143 130 65 52 - 104 52 42 60 - 177 169 154 77 62 16 123 61 49 12 75 - 221 211 192 96 77 20 155 78 62 15 100 - 285 273 248 124 99 26 202 101 81 20 125 - 359 343 312 156 125 31 253 126 101 25 150 - 414 396 360 180 144 37 302 151 121 30 200 - 552 528 480 240 192 49 400 201 161 40

250 - - - - 302 242 60 - - - 300 - - - - 361 289 72 - - - 350 - - - - 414 336 83 - - - 400 - - - - 477 382 95 - - - 450 - - - - 515 412 103 - - - 500 - - - - 590 472 118 - - - -

*For 90 and 80 percent power factor, the figures shall be multiplied by 1.1 and 1.25, respectively.

Synchronous-Type

Unity Power Factor*

(Amperes)

Page 45

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Ampacities of multiconductor cable

Ampacities of Multiconductor Cables with Not More than Three Insulated Conductors, Rated 0 Through 2000 Volts, in Free Air Based on Ambient Temperature of 40KC (104˚) (For Types TC, MC, MI, UF, and USE Cables)

Size

60˚C 75˚C 85˚C 90˚C 60˚C 75˚C 85˚C 90˚C

(140˚F) (167˚F) (185˚F) (194˚F) (140˚F) (167˚F) (185˚F) (194˚F)

AWG or ALUMINUM OR COPPER-CLAD AWG or kcmil COPPER ALUMINUM kcmil

18 - - - 11* - - - - 18

Size

16 - - - 16* - - - - 16 14 18* 21* 24* 25* - - - - 14 12 21* 28* 30* 32* 18* 21* 24* 25* 12 10 28* 36* 41* 43* 21* 288 30* 32* 10 8 39 50 56 59 30 39 44 46 8

6 52 68 75 79 41 53 59 61 6 4 69 89 100 104 54 70 78 81 4 3 81 104 116 121 63 81 91 95 3 2 92 118 132 138 72 92 103 108 2 1 107 138 154 161 84 108 120 126 1

1/0 124 160 178 186 97 125 139 145 1/0 2/0 143 184 206 215 111 144 160 168 2/0 3/0 165 213 238 24/ 129 166 185 194 3/0 4/0 190 245 274 287 149 192 214 224 4/0

250 212 274 305 320 166 214 239 250 250 300 237 306 341 357 186 240 268 280 300 350 261 337 377 394 205 265 296 309 350 400 281 363 406 425 222 287 317 334 400 500 321 416 465 487 255 330 368 385 500

600 354 459 513 538 284 368 410 429 600 700 387 502 562 589 306 405 462 473 700 750 404 523 586 615 328 424 473 495 750 800 415 539 604 633 339 439 490 513 800 900 438 570 639 670 362 469 514 548 900 1000 461 601 674 707 385 499 558 584 1000

Ambient Temp. (˚C) ampacities shown above by the appropriate factor shown below. (˚F)

For ambient temperatures other than 40˚C (104˚), multiply the Temp.

Ambient

21-25 1.32 1.20 1.15 1.14 1.32 1.20 1.15 1.14 70-77 26-30 1.22 1.13 1.11 1.10 1.22 1.13 1.11 1.10 79-86 31-35 1.12 1.07 1.05 1.05 1.12 1.07 1.05 1.05 88-95 36-40 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 97-104 41-45 0.87 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.87 0.93 0.94 0.95 106-113 46-50 0.71 0.85 0.88 0.89 0.71 0.85 0.88 0.89 115-122 51-55 0.50 0.76 0.82 0.84 0.50 0.76 0.82 0.84 124-131 56-60 - 0.65 0.75 0.77 - 0.65 0.75 0.77 133-140 61-70 - 0.38 0.58 0.63 - 0.38 0.58 0.63 142-158 71-80 - - 0.33 0.44 - - 0.33 0.44 160-176

*Unless otherwise specifically permitted elsewhere in the Code, the overcurrent protection for these conductor types shall not exceed 15 amperes for No. 14, 20 amperes for No. 12, and 30 amperes for No. 10 copper; or 15 amperes for No. 12 and 25 amperes for no. 10 aluminum and copper-clad aluminium.

Ampacities of Two or Three Insulated Conductor, Rated 0 through 2000 Volts, Within an Overall Covering (Multiconductor Cable), in Raceway in Free Air Based on Amvient Air Temperature of 30˚C (86˚F)

Size

60˚C 75˚C 90˚C 60˚C 75˚C 90˚C

(140˚F) (167˚F) (194˚F) (140˚F) (167˚F) (194˚F)

Types Types Types Type Types Types TW, UF RH, RHW THHW, THW, THHW, THHW, THW, THHW, THWN, THW-2, THWN THW-2, AWG or XHHW, ZW THWN-2, XHHW THWN-2, AWG or kcmil RHH, RHH, kcmil RWH-2, RWH-2, USE-2, USE-2, XHHW, XHHW, XHHW-2, XHHW-2, ZW-2 ZW-2

ALUMINUM OR COPPER-CLAD COPPER ALUMINUM

14 16* 18* 21* - - - 14 12 20* 24* 27* 16* 18* 21* 12 10 27* 33* 36* 21* 25* 28* 10 8 36 43 48 28 33 37 8

6 48 58 65 38 45 51 6 4 66 79 89 51 61 69 4 3 76 90 102 59 70 79 3 2 88 105 119 69 83 93 2 1 102 121 137 80 95 106 1

1/0 121 145 163 94 113 127 1/0 2/0 138 166 186 108 129 146 2/0 3/0 158 189 214 124 147 167 3/0 4/0 187 223 253 147 176 197 4/0

250 205 245 276 160 192 217 250 300 234 281 317 185 221 250 300 350 255 305 345 202 242 273 350 400 274 328 371 218 261 295 400 500 315 378 427 254 303 342 500

600 343 413 468 279 335 378 600 700 376 452 514 310 371 420 700 750 387 466 529 321 384 435 750 800 397 479 543 331 397 450 800 900 415 500 570 350 421 477 900 1000 448 542 617 382 460 521 1000

Ambient Temp. (˚C) ampacities shown above by the appropriate factor shown below. (˚F)

21-25 1.08 1.05 1.04 1.08 1.05 1.04 70-77 26-30 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 79-86 31-35 0.91 0.94 0.96 0.91 0.94 0.96 88-95 36-40 0.82 0.88 0.91 0.82 0.88 0.91 97-104 41-45 0.71 0.82 0.87 0.71 0.82 0.87 46-50 0.58 0.75 0.82 0.58 0.75 0.82 51-55 0.41 0.67 0.76 0.41 0.67 0.76 56-60 - 0.58 0.71 - 0.58 0.71 61-70 - 0.33 0.58 - 0.33 0.58 71-80 - - 0.41 - - 0.41

For ambient temperatures other than 30˚C (86˚), multiply the Temp.

THHN, TW RH, RHW, THHN,

Size

Ambient

106-113 115-122 124-131 133-140 142-158

160-176

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Page 49

Allowable Ampacities of Insulated

Conductors Rated 0-2000 Volts, 60˚ to 90˚C

Single conductors in free air, based on ambient temperature of 30˚C (86˚F)

Size Temperature rating of conductor Size 60˚C 75˚C 85˚C 90˚C 60˚C 75˚C 85˚C 90˚C

(140˚F) (167˚F) (185˚F) (194˚F) (140˚F) (167˚F) (185˚F) (194˚F)

TYPES TYPES TYPES TYPES TYPES TYPES TYPES TYPES RUW, T, FEPW, V, MI TA, TBS, RUW, T, RH, RHW, V, MI TA, TBS,

AWG TW RH, RHW, SA, AVB, TW RUH, THW, SA, AVB, AWG MCM RUH, THW, SIS, THWN, SIS, MCM THWN, FEP, XHHW RHH, XHHW, ZW FEPB, THHN, RHH, XHHW THHN, XHHW

COPPER ALUMINUM OR COPPER-CLAD ALUMINUM

18 - - - 18 - - - - 16 - - 23 24 - - - - 14 25 30 30 35 - - - - 12 30 35 40 40 25 30 30 35 12 10 40 50 55 55 35 40 40 40 10 8 60 70 75 80 45 55 60 60 8

6 80 95 100 105 60 75 80 80 6 4 105 125 135 140 80 100 105 110 4 3 120 145 160 165 95 115 125 130 3 2 140 170 185 190 110 135 145 150 2 1 165 195 215 220 130 155 165 175 1

0 195 230 250 260 150 180 195 205 0 00 225 265 290 300 175 210 225 235 00 000 260 310 335 350 200 240 265 275 000 0000 300 360 390 405 235 280 305 315 0000

250 340 405 440 455 265 315 345 355 250 300 375 445 485 505 290 350 380 395 300 350 420 505 550 570 330 395 430 445 350 400 455 545 595 615 355 425 465 480 400 500 515 620 675 700 405 485 525 545 500

600 575 690 750 780 455 540 595 615 600 700 630 755 825 855 500 595 650 675 700 750 655 785 855 885 515 620 675 700 750 800 680 815 885 920 535 645 700 725 800 900 730 870 950 985 580 700 760 785 900

1000 780 935 1020 1055 625 750 815 845 1000 1250 890 1065 1160 1200 710 855 930 960 1250 1500 980 1175 1275 1325 795 950 1035 1075 1500 1750 1070 1280 1395 1445 875 1050 1145 1185 1750

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Page 50

Allowable Ampacities of Insulated

Conductors Rated 0-2000 Volts, 60˚ to 90˚C

Not more than three conductors in raceway or cable or earth (directly buried), based on ambient temperature of 30˚C (86˚F)

Size Temperature rating of conductor Size 60˚C 75˚C 85˚C 90˚C 60˚C 75˚C 85˚C 90˚C

(140˚F) (167˚F) (185˚F) (194˚F) (140˚F) (167˚F) (185˚F) (194˚F)

TYPES TYPES TYPES TYPES TYPES TYPES TYPES TYPES RUW, T, FEPW, V, MI TA, TBS, RUW, T, RH, RHW, V, MI TA, TBS, AWG TW, UF RH, RHW, SA, AVB, TW, UF RUH, THW, SA, AVB, AWG MCM RUH, THW, SIS, THWN, SIS, MCM THWN, FEP, XHHW, RHH, XHHW, FEPB, USE THHN, USE, ZW RHH, XHHW THHN, XHHW

COPPER ALUMINUM OR COPPER-CLAD ALUMINUM

18 - - - 14 - - - - 16 - - 18 18 - - - - 14 20 20 25 25 - - - - 12 25 25 30 30 20 20 25 25 12 10 30 35 40 40 25 30 30 35 10 8 40 50 55 55 30 40 40 45 8

6 55 65 70 75 40 50 55 60 6 4 70 85 95 95 55 65 75 75 4 3 85 100 110 110 65 75 85 85 3 2 95 115 125 130 75 90 100 100 2 1 110 130 145 150 85 100 110 115 1

0 125 150 165 170 100 120 130 135 0 00 145 175 190 195 115 135 145 150 00 000 165 200 215 225 130 155 170 175 000 0000 195 230 250 260 150 180 195 205 0000

250 215 255 275 290 170 205 220 230 250 300 240 285 310 320 190 230 250 255 300 350 260 310 340 350 210 250 270 280 350 400 280 335 365 380 225 270 295 305 400 500 320 380 415 430 260 310 335 350 500

600 355 420 460 475 285 340 370 385 600 700 385 460 500 520 310 375 405 420 700 750 400 475 515 535 320 385 420 435 750 800 410 490 535 555 330 395 430 450 800 900 435 520 565 585 355 425 465 480 900

1000 455 545 590 615 375 445 485 500 1000 1250 495 590 640 665 405 485 525 545 1250 1500 520 625 680 705 435 520 565 585 1500 1750 545 650 705 735 455 545 595 615 1750 2000 560 665 725 750 470 560 610 630 2000

Page 48

Page 51

Engine Fundamentals

ENGLISH / METRIC CONVERSIONS

The following table shows some frequently used English / Metric conversions.

UNIT MULTIPLIED BY EQUALS

AREA —

6.4516 cm

ENERGY —

0.0929 m

Btu 1054.8 J Btu 778.3 ft-lb hp-hr 2547 Btu kW-hr 3416 Btu

FLOW —

gpm 3.785 L/min

FORCE —

lb (force) 4.448 N kg (force) 9.807 N

LENGTH —

in. 25.4 mm ft 0.30448 m yd 0.9144 m mile 5280 ft mile (nautical) 6076.115 ft

MASS / WEIGHT —

lb 0.45359 kg lb (mass) 453.59 g ton (long) 2240 lb ton (metric) 2205 lb ton (metric) 1000 kg ton (short) 2000 lb

MISCELLANEOUS —

0 8.3453 lb H20

gal H

ENGLISH / METRIC CONVERSIONS

UNIT MULTIPLIED BY EQUALS

POWER —

Btu/min 12.96 ft-lb/s Btu/min 17.57 W ft-lb/s 1.356 W hp 0.7457 kW hp 44.24 Btu/min hp (metric) 0.7355 kW hp (metric) 542.5 ft-lb/s

PRESSURE —

atmosphere 1.013 bar atmosphere 29.92 in.Hg atmosphere 14.7 psi in. Hg (Mercury) 13.596 in. H

in. Hg 3.386 kPa

0 0.249 kPa

in. H

psi 27.7 in H

psi 2.037 in. Hg psi 6.895 kPa bar 100 kPa

TEMPERATURE —

˚C = (˚F-32)/1.8, or ˚C = ˚K-273.15 ˚F = (˚Cx1.8)+32, or ˚K = ˚C+273.15 ˚K = (˚F+459.67)/1.8

TORQUE —

lb-ft 1.356 N•m lb-in 0.1130 N•m

VOLUME —

gal 231 in

gal 3.785 L

16.387 cm

ounce (fluid) 29.57 ml quart 0.946 L

Page 49

Page 52

Technical Data

AWG/METRIC CONDUCTOR CHART

CIRCULAR WEIGHT RESISTANCE APPROX. O.D. MIL SQUARE LBS./ OHMS/ OHMS/

AWG STRANDING INCHES MM AREA INCHES MM 1000 FT. KG/KM 1000 FT. K/M

36 Solid .0050 0.127 25.0 — 0.013 .076 .113 445.0 1460.0 36 7/44 .006 0.152 28.0 — 0.014 .085 .126 371.0 1271.0

34 Solid .0063 0.160 39.7 — 0.020 .120 .179 280.0 918.0 34 7/42 .0075 0.192 43.8 — 0.022 .132 .196 237.0 777.0

32 Solid .008 0.203 67.3 .0001 0.032 .194 .289 174.0 571.0 32 7/40 .008 0.203 67.3 .0001 0.034 .203 .302 164.0 538.0 32 19/44 .009 0.299 76.0 .0001 0.039 .230 .342 136.0 448.0

30 Solid .010 0.254 100.0 .0001 0.051 .30 .45 113.0 365.0 30 7/38 .012 0.305 112.0 .0001 0.057 .339 .504 103.0 339.0 30 19/42 .012 0.305 118.8 .0001 0.061 .359 .534 87.3 286.7

28 Solid .013 0.330 159.0 .0001 0.080 .48 .72 70.8 232.0 28 7/36 .015 0.381 175.0 .0001 0.072 .529 .787 64.9 213.0 28 19/40 .016 0.406 182.6 .0001 0.093 .553 .823 56.7 186.0

27 7/35 .018 0.457 219.5 .0002 0.112 .664 .988 54.5 179.0 26 Solid .016 0.409 256.0 .0002 0.128 .770 1.14 43.6 143.0

26 10/36 .021 0.533 250.0 .0002 0.128 .757 1.13 41.5 137.0 26 19/38 .020 0.508 304.0 .0002 0.155 .920 1.37 34.4 113.0 26 7/34 .019 0.483 277.8 .0002 0.142 .841 1.25 37.3 122.0

24 Solid .020 0.511 404.0 .0003 0.205 1.22 1.82 27.3 89.4 24 7/32 .024 0.610 448.0 .0004 0.229 1.36 2.02 23.3 76.4 24 10/34 .023 0.582 396.9 .0003 0.202 1.20 1.79 26.1 85.6 24 19/36 .024 0.610 475.0 .0004 0.242 1.43 2.13 21.1 69.2 24 11/40 .023 0.582 384.4 .0003 0.196 1.16 1.73 25.6 84.0

22 Solid .025 0.643 640.0 .0005 0.324 1.95 2.91 16.8 55.3 22 7/30 .030 0.762 700.0 .0006 0.357 2.12 3.16 14.7 48.4 22 19/34 .031 0.787 754.1 .0006 0.385 2.28 3.39 13.7 45.1 22 26/36 .030 0.762 650.0 .0005 0.332 1.97 2.93 15.9 52.3

20 Solid .032 0.813 1020.0 .0008 0.519 3.10 4.61 10.5 34.6 20 7/28 .038 0.965 1111.0 .0009 0.562 3.49 5.19 10.3 33.8 20 10/30 .035 0.889 1000.0 .0008 0.510 3.03 4.05 10.3 33.9 20 19/32 .037 0.940 1216.0 .0010 0.620 3.70 5.48 8.6 28.3 20 26/34 .036 0.914 1031.9 .0008 0.526 3.12 4.64 10.0 33.0 20 41/36 .036 0.914 1025.0 .0008 0.523 3.10 4.61 10.0 32.9

18 Solid .040 1.020 1620.0 .0013 0.823 4.92 7.32 6.6 21.8 18 7/26 .048 1.219 1769.6 .0014 0.902 5.36 7.98 5.9 19.2 18 16/30 .047 1.194 1600.0 .0013 0.816 4.84 7.20 8.5 21.3 18 19/30 .049 1.245 1900.0 .0015 0.969 5.75 8.56 5.5 17.9 18 41/34 .047 1.194 1627.3 .0013 0.830 4.92 7.32 6.4 20.9 18 65/36 .047 1.194 1625.0 .0013 0.829 4.91 7.31 6.4 21.0

16 Solid .051 1.290 2580.0 .0020 1.310 7.81 11.60 4.2 13.7 16 7/24 .060 1.524 2828.0 .0022 1.442 8.56 12.74 3.7 12.0 16 65/34 .059 1.499 2579.9 .0020 1.316 7.81 11.62 4.0 13.2 16 26/30 .059 1.499 2600.0 .0021 1.326 7.87 11.71 4.0 13.1 16 19/29 .058 1.473 2426.3 .0019 1.327 7.35 10.94 4.3 14.0 16 105/36 .059 1.499 2625.0 .0021 1.339 7.95 11.83 4.0 13.1

14 Solid .064 1.630 4110.0 .0032 2.080 12.40 18.50 2.6 8.6 14 7/22 .073 1.854 4480.0 .0035 2.285 13.56 20.18 2.3 7.6 14 19/27 .073 1.854 3830.4 .0030 1.954 11.59 17.25 2.7 8.9 14 41/30 .073 1.854 4100.0 .0032 2.091 12.40 18.45 2.5 8.3

D.C. RESISTANCE D.C.

Page 50

Page 53

Technical Data

AWG/METRIC CONDUCTOR CHART

CIRCULAR WEIGHT RESISTANCE APPROX. O.D. MIL SQUARE LBS./ OHMS/ OHMS/

AWG STRANDING INCHES MM AREA INCHES MM 1000 FT. KG/KM 1000 FT. K/M

12 Solid .081 2,05 6,530.0 .0052 3,31 19.80 29.50 1.7 5.4 12 7/20 .096 2,438 7,168.0 .0057 3,66 21.69 32.28 1.5 4.8 12 19/25 .093 2,369 6,087.6 .0048 3,105 18.43 27.43 1.7 5.6 12 65/30 .095 2,413 6,500.0 .0051 3,315 19.66 29.26 1.8 5.7 12 165/34 .095 2,413 6,548.9 .0052 3,340 19.82 29.49 1.6 5.2

10 Solid .102 2,59 1,038.0 .0083 5,26 31.4 46.80 1.0 3.4 10 37/26 .115 2,921 9,353.6 .0074 4,770 28.31 41.13 1.1 3.6 10 49/27 .116 2,946 9,878.4 .0078 5,038 29.89 44.48 1.1 3.6 10 105/30 .116 2,946 10,530.0 .0083 5,370 31.76 47.26 0.98 3.2

8 49/25 .147 3,374 15,697.0 .0124 8,007 47.53 70.73 0.67 2.2 8 133/29 .147 3,374 16,984.0 .0134 8,662 51.42 76.52 0.61 2.0 8 655/36 .147 3,374 16,625.0 .0131 8,479 49.58 73.78 0.62 2.0

6 133/27 .184 4,674 26,813.0 .0212 13,675 81.14 120.74 0.47 1.5 6 259/30 .184 4,674 25,900.0 .0205 13,209 78.35 116.59 0.40 1.3 6 1050/36 .184 4,674 26,250.0 .0208 13,388 79.47 118.26 0.39 1.3

4 133/25 .232 5,898 42,613.0 .0337 21,733 129.01 191.98 0.24 0.80 4 259/27 .232 5,898 52,214.0 .0413 26,629 158.02 235.15 0.20 0.66 4 1666/36 .232 5,898 41,650.0 .0329 21,242 126.10 187.65 0.25 0.82

D.C. RESISTANCE D.C.

2 133/23 .292 7,417 67,936.0 .0537 34,648 205.62 305.98 0.15 0.50 2 259/26 .292 7,417 65,475.0 .0518 33,392 198.14 294.85 0.16 0.52 2 665/30 .292 7,417 66,500.0 .0526 33,915 201.16 299.35 0.16 0.52 2 2646/36 .292 7,417 66,150.0 .0523 33,737 200.28 298.04 0.16 0.52

1 163,195.9 .328 8,331 85,133.0 .0673 43,418 257.60 383.34 0.12 0.40 1 172,508.0 .328 8,331 82,984.0 .0656 42,322 251.20 373.81 0.13 0.41 1 817/30 .328 8,331 81,700.0 .0646 41,667 247.10 367.71 0.13 0.42 1 2109/34 .328 8,331 83,706.0 .0662 42,690 253.29 376.92 0.12 0.41

1/0 133/21 .368 9,347 108,036.0 .0854 55,098 327.05 486.68 0.096 0.31 1/0 259/24 .368 9,347 104,636.0 .0827 53,364 316.76 471.37 0.099 0.32

2/0 133/20 .414 10,516 136,192.0 .1077 69,458 412.17 613.35 0.077 0.25 2/0 259/23 .414 10,516 132,297.0 .1046 67,472 400.41 595.85 0.077 0.25

3/0 259/22 .464 11,786 163,195.0 .1290 83.230 501.70 746.58 0.062 0.20 3/0 427/24 .464 11,786 172,508.0 .1364 87,979 522.20 777.09 0.059 0.19

4/0 259/21 .522 13,259 210,386.0 .1663 107,297 638.88 950.72 0.049 0.16

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Time and Speed Table

If you know the time of your boat over a statute or nautical mile, this table shows the corresponding speed in statute or nautical miles per hour.

Secs. 1 min. 2 min. 3 min. 4 min. 5 min. 6 min. 7 min. 8 min. 9 min. 10 min. 11 min. 12 min. 13 min. 14 min.

0 60.000 30.000 20.000 15.000 12.000 10.000 8.571 7.500 6.667 6.000 5.455 5.000 4.615 4.286

1 59.016 29.752 19.890 14.938 11.960 9.972 8.551 7.484 6.654 5.990 5.446 4.993 4.609 4.281 2 58.064 29.508 19.780 14.876 11.921 9.945 8.531 7.469 6.642 5.980 5.438 4.986 4.604 4.275 3 57.143 29.268 19.672 14.815 11.881 9.917 8.511 7.453 6.630 5.970 5.430 4.979 4.598 4.270 4 56.250 29.032 19.565 14.754 11.842 9.890 8.491 7.438 6.618 5.960 5.422 4.972 4.592 4.265

5 55.384 28.800 19.459 14.694 11.803 9.863 8.471 7.423 6.606 5.950 5.414 4.965 4.586 4.260 6 54.545 28.571 19.355 14.634 11.765 9.836 8.451 7.407 6.593 5.941 5.405 4.959 4.580 4.255 7 53.731 28.346 19.251 14.575 11.726 9.809 8.431 7.392 6.581 5.931 5.397 4.952 4.574 4.250 8 52.941 28.125 19.149 14.516 11.688 9.783 8.411 7.377 6.569 5.921 5.389 4.945 4.568 4.245 9 52.174 27.907 19.048 14.458 11.650 9.756 8.392 7.362 6.557 5.911 5.381 4.938 4.563 4.240

10 51.428 27.692 18.947 14.400 11.613 9.730 8.372 7.347 6.545 5.902 5.373 4.931 4.557 4.235 11 50.704 27.481 18.848 14.343 11.576 9.704 8.353 7.332 6.534 5.892 5.365 4.925 4.551 4.230 12 50.000 27.273 18.750 14.286 11.538 9.677 8.333 7.317 6.522 5.882 5.357 4.918 4.545 4.225 13 49.315 27.068 18.653 14.229 11.502 9.651 8.314 7.302 6.510 5.873 5.349 4.911 4.540 4.220 14 48.648 26.866 18.557 14.173 11.465 9.626 8.295 7.287 6.498 5.863 5.341 4.905 4.534 4.215

15 48.000 26.667 18.461 14.118 11.429 9.600 8.276 7.273 6.486 5.854 5.333 4.898 4.528 4.210 16 47.368 26.471 18.367 14.062 11.392 9.574 8.257 7.258 6.475 5.844 5.325 4.891 4.523 4.206 17 46.753 26.277 18.274 14.008 11.356 9.549 8.238 7.243 6.463 5.835 5.318 4.885 4.517 4.201 18 46.154 26.087 18.182 13.953 11.321 9.524 8.219 7.229 6.452 5.825 5.310 4.878 4.511 4.196 19 45.570 25.899 18.090 13.900 11.285 9.499 8.200 7.214 6.440 5.816 5.302 4.871 4.506 4.191

20 45.000 25.714 18.000 13.846 11.250 9.474 8.182 7.200 6.429 5.806 5.294 4.865 4.500 4.186 21 44.444 25.532 17.910 13.793 11.215 9.449 8.163 7.186 6.417 5.797 5.286 4.858 4.494 4.181 22 43.902 25.352 17.822 13.740 11.180 9.424 8.145 7.171 6.406 5.788 5.279 4.852 4.489 4.176 23 43.373 25.175 17.734 13.688 11.146 9.399 8.126 7.157 6.394 5.778 5.271 4.845 4.483 4.171 24 42.857 25.000 17.647 13.636 11.111 9.375 8.108 7.143 6.383 5.769 5.263 4.839 4.478 4.167

25 42.353 24.828 17.561 13.585 11.077 9.351 8.090 7.129 6.372 5.760 5.255 4.832 4.472 4.162 26 41.860 24.658 17.475 13.534 11.043 9.326 8.072 7.115 6.360 5.751 5.248 4.826 4.467 4.157 27 41.379 24.490 17.391 13.483 11.009 9.302 8.054 7.101 6.349 5.742 5.240 4.819 4.461 4.152 28 40.909 24.324 17.308 13.433 10.976 9.278 8.036 7.087 6.338 5.732 5.233 4.813 4.455 4.147 29 40.450 24.161 17.225 13.383 10.942 9.254 8.018 7.073 6.327 5.723 5.225 4.806 4.450 4.143

30 40.000 24.000 17.143 13.333 10.909 9.231 8.000 7.059 6.316 5.714 5.217 4.800 4.444 4.138 31 39.561 23.841 17.062 13.284 10.876 9.207 7.982 7.045 6.305 5.705 5.210 4.794 4.439 4.133 32 39.130 23.684 16.981 13.235 10.843 9.184 7.965 7.031 6.294 5.696 5.202 4.787 4.433 4.128 33 38.710 23.529 16.901 13.187 10.811 9.160 7.947 7.018 6.283 5.687 5.195 4.781 4.428 4.124 34 38.298 23.377 16.822 13.139 10.778 9.137 7.930 7.004 6.272 5.678 5.187 4.774 4.423 4.119

35 37.895 23.226 16.744 13.091 10.746 9.114 7.912 6.990 6.261 5.669 5.150 4.768 4.417 4.114 36 37.500 23.077 163667 13.043 10.714 9.091 7.895 6.977 6.250 5.660 5.172 4.762 4.412 4.110 37 37.113 22.930 16.590 12.996 10.652 9.068 7.877 6.963 6.239 5.651 5.165 4.756 4.406 4.105 38 36.736 22.785 16.514 12.950 10.651 9.045 7.860 6.950 6.228 5.643 5.158 4.749 4.401 4.100 39 36.364 22.642 16.438 12.903 10.619 9.023 7.843 6.936 6.218 5.634 5.150 4.743 4.396 4.096

40 36.000 22.500 16.364 12.857 10.588 9.000 7.826 6.923 6.207 5.625 5.143 4.737 4.390 4.091 41 35.644 22.360 12.290 12.811 10.557 8.978 7.809 6.910 6.196 5.616 5.136 4.731 4.385 4.086 42 35.294 22.222 16.216 12.766 10.526 8.955 7.792 6.897 6.186 5.607 5.128 4.724 4.379 4.082 43 34.951 22.086 16.143 12.721 10.496 8.933 7.775 6.883 6.175 5.599 5.121 4.718 4.374 4.077 44 34.615 21.951 16.071 12.676 10.465 8.911 7.759 6.870 6.164 5.590 5.114 4.712 4.369 4.072

45 34.286 21.818 16.000 12.635 10.435 8.889 7.742 6.857 6.154 5.581 5.106 4.706 4.364 4.068 46 33.962 21.687 15.929 12.587 10.405 8.867 7.725 6.844 6.143 5.573 5.099 4.700 4.358 4.063 47 33.644 21.557 15.859 12.544 10.375 8.845 7.709 6.831 6.133 5.564 5.092 4.893 4.353 4.059 48 33.333 21.429 15.789 12.500 10.345 8.824 7.692 6.818 6.122 5.556 5.085 4.687 4.348 4.054 49 33.028 21.302 15.721 12.457 10.315 8.802 7.676 6.805 6.112 5.547 5.078 4.681 4.343 4.049

50 32.727 21.176 15.652 12.414 10.286 8.780 7.660 6.792 6.102 5.538 5.070 4.675 4.337 4.045 51 32.432 21.053 15.584 12.371 10.256 8.759 7.643 6.780 6.091 5.530 5.063 4.669 4.332 4.040 52 32.143 20.930 15.517 12.329 10.227 8.738 7.627 6.767 6.081 5.521 5.056 4.663 4.327 4.035 53 31.858 20.809 15.451 12.287 10.198 8.717 7.611 6.754 6.071 5.513 5.049 4.657 4.322 4.031 54 31.579 20.690 15.385 12.245 10.169 8.696 7.595 6.742 6.061 5.505 5.042 4.651 4.316 4.027

55 31.304 20.571 15.319 12.203 10.141 8.675 7.579 6.729 6.050 5.496 5.035 4.645 4.311 4.022 56 31.034 20.455 15.254 12.162 10.112 8.654 7.563 6.716 6.040 5.488 5.028 4.639 4.306 4.018 57 30.769 20.339 15.190 12.121 10.084 8.633 7.547 6.704 6.030 5.479 5.021 4.633 4.301 4.013 58 30.508 20.225 15.126 12.081 10.056 8.612 7.531 6.691 6.020 5.471 5.014 4.627 4.296 4.009 59 30.252 20.112 15.063 12.040 10.028 8.592 7.516 6.679 6.010 5.463 5.007 4.621 4.291 4.004

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Glossary - Electrical Terms

AC -Alternating current, which varies from zero to a

positive maximum to zero to a negative maximum to zero, a number of times per second, the number being expressed in cycles per second or Hertz.

Air gap - The radial space between the rotating

element and the stationary element of a generator or motor, through which space the magnetic energy passes.

Alternator - A generator which produces alternating

current.

Ambient temperature - The temperature of the

surroundings in which a generator operates. Assumed to be 40˚ C maximum unless otherwise stated.

Ammeter - An instrument designed to measure electric

current ﬂ ow.

Amortisseur - A short-circuited winding in the rotor

of a synchronous generator, consisting of conductors embedded in the pole faces, connected together at both ends of the poles by end rings. Its function is to damp out oscillations or hunting during load changes.

Ampere - The unit of electric current ﬂ ow. One ampere

will ﬂ ow when one bolt is applied across a resistance of one ohm.

Ampere turn - A unit of magneto-motive force. The

product of current ﬂ owing multiplied by the number of turns in a coil.

Armature - An armature is the complete assembly of

armature winding and armature core. In Northern Lights synchronous generators it is the stationary part with the stator windings.

Armature coil - The stator windings embedded in the

core, in which the voltage is induced.

Armature core - The magnetic steel laminations of the

armature.

Auto-transformer - A transformer of single coil

construction in which both primary and secondary connections are made to the same coil at different taps.

B - - The negative polarity of a storage battery. B + - The positive polarity of a storage battery. Capacitance - The property of a capacitor (or

condenser) which causes the current to lead the voltage, thereby creating a leading power factor (see

power factor).

Capacitor - A device capable of storing electric energy

consisting of tow conducting surfaces separated by an insulating material. It blocks the ﬂ ow of direct current while allowing alternating current to pass.

Circuit - A path for an electric current. Circuit Breaker - A switching device for opening and

closing an electric circuit.

Condenser - See capacitor. Conductor - A wire or cable for carrying current. Connector - A device for electrically interconnecting

two or more conductors.

Contactor - A device for establishing and breaking an

electric power circuit.

Controlled rectiﬁ er - See SCR. Copper loss - That portion of the losses involved in

generation caused by the ﬂ ow of current through coils and conductors within the generator, proportional to the resistance and to the square of the current.

Core - The laminations in the generator constituting the

magnetic structure thereof.

Cross current compensation - In parallel operation

of generators, a system which permits the generators to share the reactive component of the power in proportion to their rating.

CT or current transformer - A transformer, generally

with a 5 ampere secondary, used in conjunction with control circuits and instruments such as ammeters and watt meters.

Current - The ﬂ ow of electric power expressed in

amperes.

Current limiting fuse - A specially designed fuse

which will interrupt a circuit practically instantaneously when the current reaches a certain value, but will not do so below that value, regardless of its duration.

Cycle - One complete reversal of an alternating current

or voltage, from zero to a positive maximum to zero to a negative maximum back to zero. The number of cycles per second is the frequency, expressed in Hertz (hz).

Damper winding - See amortisseur.

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DC - see direct current. Decibel dB - Unit used to describe noise level. Deviation factor - A measure of the amount by which

an alternating voltage differs from a pure sine wave.

Dielectric - Insulation. Dielectric strength - The ability of insulation to

withstand voltage without rupturing.

Diode - A two terminal solid-state device which

allows current to ﬂ ow in one direction, but not in the other. Since it allows only the positive half cycle of an alternating current to ﬂ ow, its output will be unidirectional, for which reason it may be considered as a rectifying element.

Direct current - An electric current which ﬂ ows in one

direction only.

two poles of the same polarity, contains 360 electrical degrees. Hence the electrical angle represents a certain point of the AC wave.

Electrical degree - One 360th part of a cycle of an

alternating wave.

Electrical radian - A part of an alternating current or

voltage cycle, a cycle contains 2 radians.

Electro-magnetic ﬁ eld - A magnetic ﬁ eld located at

right angles to the lines of force and to their direction of motion.

EMF - See electro-motive force. EMI - Electro-magnetic (radio) interference. End rings - That part of the amortisseur winding

which electrically interconnects the amortisseur bars of adjacent poles.

Distribution panel - The output of a generator is

supplied to the distribution panel, where it is divided for supplying different loads. Generally contains circuit breakers and protective devices.

Double pole switch - A switch which opens or closes

two circuits at the same time.

Double throw switch - A switch which has a normally

open and a normally closed contact with a common terminal.

DPDT switch - A double pole, double throw switch. DPST switch - A double pole, single throw switch. Drift - A gradual change in voltage output, sometimes

caused by an increase in temperature resulting from generator or regulator losses.

Drop, voltage - Voltage drop is caused by a current

ﬂ owing through a resistance. It is equal to the current in amperes times the resistance in ohms.

E - Symbol used for voltage. Earth - Electrical ground. Eddy current - Current circulating in conducting

materials, caused by magnetic ﬁ elds. They represent losses in generators and are reduced by the use of thin laminations of special steel.

Effective values - The RMS (root means square) value

of an AC value, such as voltage and current. The usual meters indicate these values.

Efﬁ ciency - The ratio between electrical output divided

by the mechanical input, expressed as a percentage of the Efﬁ ciency = KW output HP input/0.746

Electrical angle - One cycle, or the distance between

Energy - Capability of performing work. Expressed in

KW-hrs.

Excitation - The input of DC power into the ﬁ eld coils

of a synchronous generator, producing the magnetic ﬂ ux required for inducing voltages in the armature coils.

Exciter - A device for supplying excitation to generator

ﬁ elds. It may be a rotating exciter, that is a DC generator or AC generator with rectiﬁ ers, or it may be a static device using solid-state components.

Exciter current - The ﬁ eld current required to produce

rated voltage at rated load and frequency.

Exciter voltage - The voltage required to cause the

exciter current to ﬂ ow through the ﬁ eld winding.

Feedback - Transfer of a portion of energy from one

point in an electrical system to a preceding point, such as from the output back to the input, used to increase stability.

Field - That part of the generator rotor which, when

supplied with direct current, will establish the magnetic ﬁ eld. Also, the magnetic ﬁ eld so produced.

Field coil - The coils of the rotating ﬁ eld structure being

supplied with direct current for excitation.

Field pole - The part of the rotating magnetic structure

of a generator on which the ﬁ eld coils are located.

Firing circuit - The circuit which controls the point

within a cycle at which a voltage is applied to the gate of a silicon controlled rectiﬁ er (SCR) thereby allowing current to ﬂ ow through the SCR. The SCR is a solid- state device which can pass a current in one direction only, similar to a diode. However, it has a third terminal, called the gate, and current can pass only when a suitable potential (voltage) is applied to the gate.

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ground.

Harmonic - See fundamental frequency. Heat sink - A device which absorbs and dissipates

heat from diodes and SCR’s to prevent damage caused by overheating.

Gate voltage is applied at point A. The SCR will then pass current until the voltage becomes negative at B. When the voltage becomes positive again, no current can ﬂ ow until the proper voltage is again applied at A. The ﬁ ring circuit establishes point A in accordance with requirement. The area enclosed in the solid lines is thereby established in accordance with requirements determined by the voltage regulator. This area is proportional to the ﬁ eld excitation needed to maintain nominal voltage.

Frame generator - The mechanical element which

contains the stator core and coils.

Freewheeling diode - A diode whose function is

to allow the conduction of an inductive load current during those periods in which the SCR is in the nonconducting state.

Frequency - The number of complete cycles of an

alternating voltage of current per unit of time, usually per second. So expressed in CPS, cycles per second, or Hertz (hz).

Fundamental frequency - A generator produces

a voltage with a wave shape approaching a pure sine wave. Deviations from this sine wave can be expressed as additional sine waves of frequencies which are a multiple of the fundamental frequency. The additional frequencies are called harmonics. They are expressed as third, ﬁ fth, etc. harmonics, demoting their frequency as a multiple of the fundamental frequency. For example, in a 60 hz generator, 600 hz is the fundamental frequency. The third harmonic will have a frequency of 3 times 60 or 180 hz.

Gain - An ampliﬁ cation ratio obtained by dividing

the change in an output quantity by a change in a corresponding input quantity.

Gate - The third terminal of a SCR to which a voltage

must be applied before a current can pass from the ﬁ rst terminal to the second.

Generator - A machine which transforms mechanical

energy into electrical energy.

Ground - A connection, either intentional or accidental,

between an electric circuit and the earth or some conducting body serving in place of the earth.

Grounded neutral - The center point of a Y-connected,

four-wire generator, which is intentionally connected to

Hertz - Equivalent to cycles per second (CPS). Symbol

is hz (see cycle).

Hunting - A phenomenon occurring upon load

changes, in which the frequency or the voltage continues to rise above and fall below the desired value and does not reach a steady-state value. Caused by insufﬁ cient damping.

I - Symbol for current, expressed in amperes. Induced voltage - The voltage which is produced in

a coil as it passes through a magnetic ﬁ eld when the number of magnetic lines of force cutting across the conductors changes.

Inductance - The property of a coil which tends to

prevent a change in current ﬂ ow when alternating currents are present. Expressed in Henrys.

In phase - Alternating currents and voltages are in

phase when they pass through zero and reach their maximum simultaneously.

Insulation - Non-conductive material used to prevent

leakage of electric power from a conductor. In generators, four classes of insulation are used and each class has its own maximum temperature that it can successfully withstand under continuous full load operation by resistance measurement.

Class A - 60˚C rise over a 40˚C ambient. Class B - 80˚C rise over a 40˚C ambient. Class F - Prime power duty: 105˚C rise over a 40˚C

ambient. Standby power duty: 130˚C rise over a 40˚C ambient.

Class H - 125˚C rise over a 40˚C ambient. Insulation resistance - The resistance, measured by

a megohmmeter, between the generator leads and the generator frame and between the ﬁ eld leads and the shaft.

IR voltage drop - (across a resistance) Equal to the

current in amperes times the resistance in ohms.

Iron loss - That portion of the losses involved in

generation caused by the magnetization of the cores. It depends on the ﬂ ux density and the thickness and material of the core lamination.

K - one 1000.

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KVA - 1000 volt amperes (see VA). KVAR - 1000 reactive volt amperes (see reactive KVA). KW - Unit of electric power, equal to 1000 watts (see

real power).

KW hr. - One KW of electric power used for 1 hour.

Unit of electric energy.

L - Symbol for inductance express in Henrys. Lagging power factor - Caused by inductive loads,

such as motors and transformers, in which the current lags behind the voltage in an alternating current network (see power factor).

Laminated core - A ferromagnetic core, consisting of a

number of thin laminations of silicon steel, forming the magnetic path in a generator.

Line to line voltage - The voltage existing between

any two phases of a two or three phase generator.

Losses - The difference between the input and the

output of an electrical or mechanical device.

Magnetic circuit - A path for magnetic lines of force. Magnetic ﬁ eld density - Magnetic lines of force per

unit area.

Magnetic ﬁ eld strength - The number of magnetic

lines of force produced by ﬁ eld current.

Magnetic line of force - Imaginary lines used for

convenience to designate the direction in which magnetic forces act in a magnetic ﬁ eld produced by the ﬁ eld windings of a generator.

Megger - A high range ohmmeter having a built-in

hand operated generator used for measuring insulation resistance.

Megohm - One million ohms Megohmmeter - See megger. Neutral - The common point of a Y-connected

machine, or a conductor connected to that point.

NC or normally closed - A relay contact which is

closed when the relay coil is not energized.

in DC circuits. In AC circuits a value called impedance replaces the DC resistance. The law states that E=IR, voltage is equal to current times resistance.

Open circuit voltage - The voltage produced when

no load in attached to the voltage source, such as a generator.

Oscillogram - A trace of rapidly changing electric

quantities recorded on an oscillograph.

Oscillograph - A recording oscilloscope. Oscilloscope - A device, generally a cathode-ray tube,

which reproduces on a viewing screen, traces of the wave shape of one or more rapidly changing quantities.

Out-of-phase - Waves of the same frequency which do

not pass through their zero point at the same instant.

Overload rating - The load in excess of the nominal

rating a generator set is designed to produce for a speciﬁ ed length of time.

Overload relay - A relay which operates to interrupt

excessive currents.

Parallel connection - An electrical connection in which

the input electrode of one element is connected to the input electrode of another element, and the output electrodes are similarly connected together, thereby providing two paths for current ﬂ ow.

Parallel operation - Two or more generators of the

same voltage and frequency characteristics connected to the same load.

Paralleling - The procedure used to connect two or

more generators in parallel, that is, connect them to a common load.

PF - See power factor. Phase - The windings of an AC generator. In a three-

phase generator there are three windings with their voltages 120 degrees out of phase, meaning that the instants at which the three voltages pass through zero or reach their maximums are 120 degrees, if one complete cycle is considered to contain 360 degrees. In single-phase generators, only one winding is present.

NO or normally open - A relay contact which is open

when the relay coil is not energized.

Ohm - Unit of electrical resistance. One volt will cause

a current of one ampere to ﬂ ow through a resistance of one ohm.

Ohmmeter - A device for measuring electrical

resistance.

Ohm’s law - A fundamental law expressing the

relationship between voltage, current and resistance

Page 56

Phase rotation - The sequence in which the phases of

a generator or network pass through the zero points of their waves. The same sequence must exist when units are paralleled.

Polarity - An electrical property which indicates

the direction in which a direct current tends to ﬂ ow. Expressed as + and - or positive and negative.

Pole - A part of a magnetic structure, there being

two such parts called a North pole and a South pole. Since neither pole can exist without the corresponding

Page 59

opposite, they always are present in pairs. Hence a generator always has an even number of poles. Also, used for the electrodes of a battery and to indicate the number of circuits affected by a switch.

Potential - Voltage.

Real power - A term used to describe the product of

current, voltage and power factor, expressed in KW. One KW equals 1.34 HP.

Reactiﬁ er - A device for changing alternating current

into direct current.

Potential difference - The difference in voltage

between two points.

Potentiometer - A variable resistor. A rheostat. Power - Rate of performing work, or energy per

unit of time. Mechanical power can be measured in horsepower, electrical power in kilowatts.

Power factor (also cos ø) - In AC circuits, the

inductances and capacitances may cause the point at which the voltage wave passes through zero to differ from the point at which the current wave passes through zero. When the current wave precedes the voltage wave, a leading power factor results, as in the case of a capacitive load or over-excited synchronous motor. When the voltage wave precedes the current wave, a lagging power factor results, this is generally the case. The power factor expresses the extent to which the voltage zero differs from the current zero. Considering one full cycle to be 360 degrees, the difference between the zero points can then be expressed as an angle. Power factor is calculated as the cosine of the angle between zero points and is expressed as a decimal fraction (.8) or as a percentage (80%). It can also be shown to be the ratio of KW, divided by the KVA. In other words KW=KVA x PF (see power factor).

Primary winding - The winding of a transformer

which is on the input side. The input winding, usually the stator of the generator may be referred to as the primary winding.

R - Symbol for resistance, expressed in ohms. Radio interference - The interference with radio

reception caused by a generator set.

Radio interference suppression - Filter to minimize

radio interference.

Reactance - Opposition to current in AC applications,

caused by inductances and capacitances. It is expressed in ohms and its symbol is X.

Reactive KVA or KVAR (1000 reactive volt amperes) - an AC value consists of active and wattless

components. The active component is expressed in KW, the wattless component in KVAR. The result KVA is calculated from

KVA = √KW

+ KVAR

Rectiﬁ er bridge - A group of rectiﬁ ers (possibly diodes)

connected in such a way that DC voltage appears across one diagonal when an AC voltage is applied across the other diagonal.

Regulation, frequency - A value obtained by dividing

the difference between no load and full load frequency by the full load frequency. Expressed in percent.

Regulation, voltage - See voltage regulation. Regulator, voltage - See voltage regulator. Relay - An electro-magnetic device which opens or

closes its contact and the circuits connected thereto under the inﬂ uence of an impulse applied to its coil.

Residual magnetism - The magnetic induction which

remains after the magnetization force is removed.

Resistance - The opposition to the ﬂ ow of direct

current, expressed in ohms and its symbol is R.

Resistor - A component which offers resistance to the

ﬂ ow of electric current. Its rating is expressed in ohms and watts, indicating the heat which it can dissipate.

Resistor, variable - A resistor with a means for

adjusting its resistance value.

Rheostat - A resistor of which the resistance value

can be changed by turning a knob, or a shaft with a screwdriver slot and locking nut. A potentiometer.

Rotor - The rotating element of a motor or generator. RPM - Revolutions per minute. Secondary winding - That part of a transformer to

which the load in connected; it receives energy from the primary or input side through electro-magnetic induction.

Series connection - An electrical connection in which

the output electrode of one element is connected to the input electrode of another element, thereby providing one path for current ﬂ ow.

Short circuit - Generally a non-intentional electrical

connection between current carrying parts.

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Shunt trip - An electro magnet which when energized

trips a circuit breaker and thereby opens a circuit.

Signal - An electrical impulse which initiates action of

a regulating device. Also called error signal, which in a voltage regulator denotes the difference between the sensed voltage and the reference voltage.

SCR or silicon controlled rectiﬁ er (also see gate) - A

three terminal solid-state device which permits current to ﬂ ow in one direction only and to do this only when a suitable potential is applied to the third terminal called the gate.

Star connection - See Y connection. Starting current - The initial value of current drawn by

a motor when it is started from standstill and when full line voltage is applied across its terminals.

Stator - The stationary part of a generator. Stator winding - The armature winding, located in the

stator core of a revolving ﬁ eld generator, in which the output voltage is induced.

Surge - A sudden transient variation in current, voltage

or frequency.

Surge suppressor - A device capable of conducting

high transient voltage, which protects other devices that could be destroyed.

Synchronism - The state of being of the same

frequency and in phase.

Synchronizing - To match one wave to another, by

adjusting its frequency and phase angle until they coincide.

Single phase - A circuit or a device energized by a

single alternating voltage. One phase of a polyphase system.

Single pole switch - A switch that opens or closes one

contact.

Single throw switch - A switch that has a normally

open or a normally closed contact.

Speed droop - Decrease in steady-state speed of

an engine caused by increase in load from no load to full load without change in governor adjustment. This decrease in full load speed is expressed as a percent of mean speed or:

(no load speed (NLS) — full load speed (FLS) x 100)

full load speed

Solenoid - A cylindrical coil acting on a movable

electro-magnetic core or plunger in the center of the coil.

Solid-state - Solid-state devices perform their function

without using moving parts. Capacitors, diodes, SCR’s, etc. have no moving parts but can perform certain functions depending on their condition. The opposite of solid-state are devices such as relays and switches, which require mechanical motion to perform their function.

SPDT switch - A single-pole, double throw switch. SPST switch - A single-pole, single throw switch. Stability - The ability to maintain or quickly reestablish

a steady-state condition after a load change.

Synchronous - Applied to a type of motor or generator

in which the relation between frequency in hz per second and the speed in rpm is ﬁ xed and invariable.

Tachometer - A device for measuring rpm. Tap - A connection point in the body of a coil or resistor. Telephone inﬂ uence factor - higher harmonics in

the wave form of generator transmission lines which can cause undesirable effects on telephone or radio communications.

Temperature drift - A condition in which temperature

changes cause a regulated value to deviate from the nominal value.

Terminal - A ﬁ tting for convenience in making electrical

connections.

Three wire system - An ungrounded three phase AC

generator output system.

Time delay relay - A relay which opens or closes its

contacts after a certain time interval has elapsed since its actuating impulse is received by the coil. Generally, the interval is adjustable.

Transformer - A device which changes the voltage of

an AC source from one value to another.

Transient - A temporary change in steady-state

conditions occurring during load changes.

Transistor

more terminals.

Unity power factor - A load whose power factor is

1.0 or 100%. This is the case when no inductive loads

- An active semi conductor having three or

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(motors, transformers, etc.) are present and only resistive loads, (incandescent lights, furnaces, etc.) are connected.

V - Volt. VA or volt ampere - The product of volts times

amperes. Used to designate the rating of a transformer or generator.

VAR or reactive volt ampere - see reactive KVA. Volt - Unit of electrical potential. Voltage - The electrical potential or pressure which

causes current to ﬂ ow in a conductor.

Voltage dip - The momentary reduction in voltage

resulting from an increase in load.

Voltage droop - Decrease in steady-state voltage

of a generator caused by increase in load from no load to full load without change in voltage regulator adjustment. This decrease in voltage is expressed as a percent of full load voltage or:

no load voltage (NLV) - full load voltage (FLV) x 100

full load voltage

Voltage droop compensation - See deﬁ nition same

as CCCT before correction with addition of transformer or resistor.

Voltage drop - See IR voltage drop. Voltage regulation - A measure of the degree to which

a power source maintains its output voltage stability under varying load conditions.

Voltage regulator - A device which maintains the

voltage output of a generator near its nominal value, regardless of load conditions.

Voltmeter - An instrument for measuring voltage. W - Watt. Watt - Unit of electrical power. Watt-hour - unit of electrical energy equal to one watt

of power consumed for one hour.

Wattless power - See reactive KVA. Waveform - The shape of a wave, graphically

represented.

Wiring harness - A pre-assembled group of wires of

the correct length and arrangement to facilitate interconnections.

X - reactance. Expressed in ohms. Y-connection - Same as star connection. A method of

interconnecting the phases of a three-phase system to

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Basic Marine Related Terminology

HULL COMPONENTS

Aft - Toward, at or near the stern (back end), of vessel. Below - Corresponding to “downstairs.” Bilge - The rounded portion of a vessel’s shell which

connects the bottom with the sides.

Bow - The forward end of a vessel. Bulkhead - A vertical wall which divides the interior into

compartments.

Chine - The edge formed between the side and bottom

of a vee bottomed or ﬂ at bottomed vessel.

Deck - The part of a vessel corresponding to the ﬂ oor

of a building.

Dry dock - Holding area where sea going vessels

are “pulled” for repair and supported in a dry area to facilitate work on all a parts of the vessel.

Engine Bed - Foundation on which the engine rests

and is secured.

Engine Stringers - Longitudinal structural members

which strengthen or support the engine bed.

Forward or Fore - Toward the bow or stern. Freeboard - The vertical distance from the deck line to

the water line.

Hull - The body of a vessel including framework,

planking, decking, and bulkheads.

Inboard - Inside of a vessel; toward the longitudinal

centerline of the hull.

Iso - International Standards of Units. Covers rules for

use of the SI system.

Keel - The “backbone” of a ship. A structural member

running longitudinally on the bottom of the centerline of the vessel.

Kort nozzle or Ducted Propeller - A venturi-like shell

ﬁ tted around a propeller to increase efﬁ ciency under heavy towing conditions. i.e.: Tugs, Draggers, Trawlers & Push-boats.

Mid-ship - At or near the mid-point of a vessel’s length. On board - On or in the vessel. Port - An opening in the side of a vessel. The left-

handed side of a vessel looking from the stern.

Rudder - A swinging vane hung to the stern post by

which the vessel is steered.

Sea Cock - Valve admitting sea (raw) water into vessel.

PROPULSION TERMINOLOGY

Blade Area - The surface of propeller blade which act

against the water (measured in square inches).

Blade Pressure - The pressure (in psi), upon the blade

area of a propeller.

Blade Pressure = Thrust (lbs.) Blade area (sq. in.)

Diameter - The outside diameter of the propeller in

inches, taken at the tips of the propeller blades. Twice the distance from the shaft center to the tip of a blade.

Pitch - The linear dimension, in inches, of the advance

of the propeller in one revolution at zero slip.

Pitch Ratio (P/d) - The ratio of propeller pitch to the

diameter.

Propeller Face - The FACE of the propeller blade is its

after or pressure surface.

Propeller Back - The BACK of the blade is the forward

or curved “suction” surface.

Propeller Rotation - A right hand propeller turns

clockwise when looking at the stern of a boat looking forward.

A left hand propeller turns counter-clockwise when looking at its face.

Outboard turning propellers are those whose blade tips above the shaft turn outboard in when moving forward.

Inboard turning propellers are those whose blade tips above the shaft turn inboard in when moving forward.

Slip - The “apparent slip” is the difference between the

theoretical speed which the vessel would obtain if the propeller were turning in a solid medium (zero slip), and the actual speed of the vessel over a measured distance.

Apparent slip =

feet and speed in knots)

Strut - A support for the propeller shaft under the stern

of the boat.

(Pitch x rpm) - (Speed of boat x 101.33) Pitch x rpm (using Pitch in terms of

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Tailshaft - The aft section of a propeller shaft which

receives the propeller.

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Thrust, Propeller - Pressure on the propeller shaft

which receives the propeller.

Twin Screw - A vessel equipped with two propellers

arranged one on the port side and one on the starboard side of the keel.

MISCELLANEOUS TERMS & FORMULAS

Coefﬁ cient, Block (Cb) - The ratio which the

underbody of the hull occupies within a rectangular block having a length equal to the waterline length of the hull, a width equal to the waterline beam and a depth equal to the molded draft.

Cb = D x 35 L x B x d

Displacement - D = L x B x d x Cb

35* or 36*

Where: L....Wateline length.

B....Waterline beam.

d....Molded draft.

Cb.... .80 - .90 for self propelled barge.

.70 - .80 for river towboats.

Water, weight - Sea water = 64 lbs. per cubic foot.

= 35 cu. ft. per long ton.

Fresh water = 62.4 lbs. per cubic foot.

= 36 cu. ft. per long ton.

Waterplane Area - The area of the surface of the

vessel bottom in contact with the water.

Waterplane Coefﬁ cient - The ratio of a vessel’s

waterplane area to the product of its length and beam.

.50 - .70 for blunt cargo boats and tugs.

.35 - .45 for pleasure boats.

*35... Cubic feet of sea water required to

make a long ton

**36..Cubic feet of fresh water required to

make a long ton

Knot - A unit of speed equivalent to one nautical mile

per hour or 1.152 statute miles per hour.

Mile - Statute - 5,280 feet.

Nautical - 6,076 feet. (1.152 statute miles)

Speed - Beam Ratio - A convenient ratio used for

comparing capabilities of hulls, particularly planing hulls.

Speed - Length Ratio (S/L) - Ratio of a vessels speed

in knots divided by the square root of its waterline length in feet. A convenient ratio used for comparing the wave making characteristics of displacement hulls. Normal S/L ratio for displacement hulls is 1.34.

S/L = Speed Length

Ton - A measure of weight or volume:

Long ton = 2240 lbs. Short ton = 2000 lbs. Metric ton = 1000 kg = 2204.6 lbs. Register ton = 100 cubic feet.

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Industrial Terminology

Aeration - The entrainment of gas (air or combustion

gas) in the coolant.

Aftercooled - Process by which the compressed

combustion air from the ﬁ nal turbocharger on the intake side is pre-cooled before introduction into the air intake manifold (also referred to as intercooled).

Air Bleed - Pressurized air extracted from the gas

turbine engine.

Air Cleaner - Device to ﬁ lter combustion air, prior to

entering the engine.

Air Cooled Engine - An engine that is cooled by

means of air being forced about the heated parts of the engine.

Air Intake Silencer - Device to mufﬂ e sound of

incoming combustion air and objectionable noise originating in the intake manifold.

Air Restrictor Indicator - A device applied in

conjunction with a dry-type air cleaner to determine the maintenance interval of the ﬁ lter cartridge.

Air Starting - Utilizes compressed air for engine or

turbine starting.

Blower Fan - A fan positioned in a cooling system such

as the air passes through the fan before entering the radiator.

Brake Horsepower - The power available at the

ﬂ ywheel, or other output member(s) for doing useful work.

Brake Mean Effective Pressure (B.M.E.P.) -

Theoretically, the average pressure which needs to be exerted during the engines power stroke to produce a power output equal to the brake horsepower.

Brake Power - Power available at the output

member(s) for doing useful work.

Bypass Oil Filter - See Partial Flow Filter City Water Cooling - Cooling derived from public utility

water.

Clogging Indicator - An indicator which is activated

when a predetermined pressure differential across the ﬁ lter is reached.

Closed Cycle Gas Turbine Engine - A closed cycle

engine which has working ﬂ uid independent of the atmosphere.

Altitude - The vertical elevation relative to sea level at

which the generating system is operating.

Altitude Rating - The power recommended by the

manufacturer for satisfactory operation at a given altitude.

Ambient Temperature - The environmental air

temperature in which the prime mover is operating.

Angle of Operation - The maximum deviation from

horizontal at which an engine operates in a given application.

Auxiliary Fuel Pump - A pump separate from the

prime mover that is usually used where main fuel storage is some distance from the engine driven fuel pump.

Back Pressure - Exhaust system pressure resulting

from restricted exhaust gas ﬂ ow.

Base Mounted Fuel Tank - Fuel tank that is

incorporated into the generating system subbase.

Battery Warmer - Heater used in extreme cold climate

to insure battery electrolyte solution does not freeze.

Block Heater - Heater device located in the cylinder

block water jacket to warm engine coolant.

Combination Medium - A ﬁ lter medium composed

of two or more types, grades or arrangements of ﬁ lter media to provide properties which are not available in a single ﬁ lter medium.

Combustion Air - The air that enters the engine and is

mixed with the fuel for the combustion process.

Combustion Chamber - See Combustor Combustor - That portion of an engine in which fuel is

burned.

Compression Ignition - Utilizes the heat caused by

compression to initiate the combustion process.

Compression Ratio = Maximum Cylinder Volume

Minimum Cylinder Volume

Continuous Brake Power - Power recommended by

the manufacturer for satisfactory operation under the manufacturer’s speciﬁ ed continuous duty conditions.

Coolant - A ﬂ uid used to transport heat from one point

to another.

Coolant Heater - A device used to heat the engine

coolant at cold ambient temperatures.

Cooling Air - The air that is used to cool the unit.

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Cooling System - A group of interrelated components

to effect the transfer of heat.

Electrical Starting System - Utilizes electrical energy

(battery) through a motor.

Cooling System Capacity - The amount of coolant

designated by the manufacturer to completely ﬁ ll the cooling system.

Corrected Power - Observed power adjusted to

standard atmospheric conditions.

Critical Silencer - An exhaust silencer that is applied

in sensitive noise control areas.

Day Tank - A small fuel tank usually adjacent to or in

close proximity to the engines driven fuel pump which stores a ready fuel supply near the engine.

De-aerating Tank - A tank capable of removing

entrained air and/or combustion gas from circulating coolant.

Delivered Air-Fuel Ratio = Mass of Delivered Air

Mass of Delivered Fuel

Differential Pressure Indicator - A device which

indicates continuously during operation the differential pressure across a ﬁ lter element.

Displacement - The swept volume of a cylinder. Disposable Element - A ﬁ lter which is discarded and

replaced at the end of its service life.

Disposable Filter - A ﬁ lter consisting of a ﬁ lter element

encased in a house which is discarded and replaced in its entirety at the end of the service life of the element.

Droop-Engine Speed - The difference between the

speed of the engine, when rated load is applied, and the speed of the engine running at no load, with a ﬁ xed governor setting.

Dual Porosity Element - An element which contains

two media of different porosity in parallel.

Dual Porosity Filter - A ﬁ lter which contains two media

of different porosity offering parallel ﬂ ow paths to the ﬂ uid.

Dual Rate Charger - Refers to an automatic battery

charger that is capable of maintaining starting batteries at a reduced rate and then switching to a high charge rate to rapidly recharge discharged batteries.

Duplex Fuel Filter - A second ﬁ lter in addition to

the primary ﬁ lter. Sometimes understood to mean a switchable system. For example, the ﬁ lter is switched while the engines is running, the original ﬁ lter replaced without interfering with normal running operation.

Effective Area - The area of a ﬁ lter medium through

which ﬂ uid ﬂ ows.

Element Pressure Differential - See Filter Pressure

Differential

Engine Charge Air Cooler - A heat exchanger used

to cool the charge air of an internal combustion engine after it has been compressed by an exhaust driven turbocharger and/or mechanically driven blower. Engine charge air coolers are often referred to as either intercoolers or aftercoolers depending upon their location, relative to the ﬁ nal compression stage, in the air induction system.

Engine Displacement - The swept volume of a piston,

in one stroke times the number of engine cylinders.

Engine Driven Battery Charger - Battery charging

alternator, or generator driven by the engine.

Engine Rating - The value of engine power output

assigned by the manufacturer, to indicate the maximum power level at which the engine should be applied in a given application.

Engine Safety Controls - Devices that protect against

catastrophic damage by shutting the engine down in the event of high coolant temperature, low lube oil pressure, low coolant level, or overspeed.

Engine Speed - The rotating velocity of the engine

ﬂ ywheel, measured in revolutions per minute.

Equalizing Timer - Used in conjunction with automatic

battery charger to insure all cells are charged.

Excess Fuel Device - Any device provided for giving

an increased fuel setting for starting only, generally designed to automatically restore action of the normal full load stop after starting.

Exducer - The ﬂ uid exit portion of a radial turbine

wheel.

Exhaust system - The exhaust system changes the

products of combustion (exhaust gases) from the engine into the atmosphere at the desired location.

Fan Air Flow - The rate of air ﬂ ow usually in units of

cubic feet (cubic meters) per minute that a fan can deliver at standard air conditions, and a speciﬁ ed static pressure and speed.

Filter - A device having a porous medium, whose

primary function is the separation and retention of particulate contaminants from a ﬂ uid.

Filter Capacity for Contaminants - The weight

of speciﬁ ed contaminant removed and held from the ﬂ uid by a ﬁ lter at a speciﬁ ed termination point.

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The termination point is speciﬁ ed as a pressure differential, reduction in ﬂ ow, ﬁ ltration efﬁ ciency, or ﬂ uid contamination level.

Filter Efﬁ ciency - The ability, expressed as percent, of

a ﬁ lter to remove speciﬁ ed artiﬁ cial contaminant from a speciﬁ ed ﬂ uid under speciﬁ ed test conditions.

Filter Element - A sub-assembly of a ﬁ lter which

contains the ﬁ lter medium or media.

Filter Housing - A ported enclosure which contains the

ﬁ lter element and directs ﬂ uid ﬂ ow.

Filter Medium - The porous material which performs

the process of particle separation and retention.

Filter Pressure Differential - The drop in pressure due

to ﬂ ow across a ﬁ lter or element at any time. The term may be qualiﬁ ed by adding one of the words “initial,” “ﬁ nal,” or “mean.”

Filter Rated Flow - The maximum ﬂ ow rate of a ﬂ uid of

speciﬁ ed viscosity for which a ﬁ lter is designed.

Final Filter - The last stage of a multi-stage ﬁ lter

system.

Flexible Exhaust Connection - Flexible section

between the exhaust manifold and exhaust line (pipe).

Flexible Fuel Lines - Pliant coupler line used between

engine and supply lines.

Float Charger - Automatic battery charger that

continually monitors battery voltage and adds charge automatically at preset level.

Flow Rate, Coolant - The rate of ﬂ ow of coolant

through a cooling system component or group of components under speciﬁ ed conditions in gallons (liters) per minute.

Four Cycle Engine - Utilizes four strokes to complete

a power cycle.

Frequency Droop - The change in frequency (hertz)

from steady state full load to steady state no load.

Fuel Heaters - A device used to heat fuel at cold

ambient temperatures.

Fuel Injection Tubing - The tube connecting the

injection pump to the nozzle holder assembly.

Fuel Injector - An assembly which receives a charge

of fuel from another source at a relatively low pressure, then is actuated by an engine mechanism to inject the charge of fuel to the combustion chamber at high pressure and at the proper time.

Fuel Lines - Tubes used to convey fuel to the engine.

Fuel Storage Tank - A container used to store the fuel

used by the prime mover.

Fuel Strainer - A course wire mesh strainer usually

used in conjunction with gas lines and heavy fuels.

Fuel Transfer Pump - The integrally mounted and

driven pump on the engine which supplies fuel to the operating system.

Full Flow Oil Filter - A ﬁ lter through which all of the

system’s oil ﬂ ows.

Full Load Stop - A device which limits the maximum

amount of fuel injected into the engine cylinders at the rated load and speed speciﬁ ed by the engine manufacturer.

Fully Equipped Engine - An engine equipped with

all the accessories necessary to perform its intended functions unaided. This includes, but is not restricted to, intake air system, exhaust system, cooling system, generator or alternator, starter, and emission control equipment.

Gasiﬁ er - That part of the engine that supplies heated,

pressurized gas to the power turbine. Typically the compressor/turbine/combustor section of a two shaftfree power turbine engine.

Gas Generator - See Gasiﬁ er Gas Producer - See Gasiﬁ er Gas Turbine Engine - A rotary prime mover which

uses an essentially continuous process to compress, heat, and expand a gaseous working ﬂ uid.

Governor - A device used to control the prime mover

speed.

Governor Regulation - The difference between

the steady state engine speed at rated load and the steady state engine speed at no load, expressed as a percentage of the rated load speed.

Gross Power - Power output of a “basic” engine. Heat Exchanger Cooling - Engine coolant heat is

dissipated to water through a liquid to liquid heat exchanger.

Heavy Duty Air Cleaner - An engine air cleaner with

greater dust holding capacity for applications where operations will be in heavy dust concentration for sustained periods.

Horsepower - A measure of engine power output

equivalent to 550 FT-LB/Second.

Hydraulic Governor - Achieves prime mover speed

control by balancing a hydraulic force against a spring

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force.

Hydraulic Starting System - Starting system that

utilizes pressurized hydraulic oil through a motor for starting.

Industrial Silencer - An exhaust mufﬂ er used to

produce the silencing level normally associated within industrial areas.

Injection Pump - The device which meters the fuel

and delivers it under pressure to the nozzle and holder assembly.

Nozzle - The assembly of parts employed to atomize

and deliver fuel to the engine.

Nozzle and Holder Assembly - The complete

apparatus which injects the pressurized fuel into the combustion chamber.

Observed Power - Power actually developed by an

engine under the atmospheric conditions existing during the test.

Oil Immersion Heater - Device used to heat the

engine lubricating oil.

Intercooler - A heat exchanger that reduces

the temperature of combustion air before initial compression; also referred to as aftercooler.

Intermittent Brake Power - Highest power

recommended by the manufacturer for satisfactory operation within the manufacturer’s speciﬁ ed conditions of load, speed, and duty cycle.

Isochronous Governor - A governor that maintains a

constant engine speed from no load to full load.

Keel Cooling - Used in marine applications to dissipate

engine coolant heat to the sea through a keel mounted heat exchanger.

Liquid Cooled Engine - An engine that is cooled by

means of liquid coolant circulated about the heated parts of the engine. The coolant is then passed through a radiator or heat exchanger where it is cooled and then re-circulated to the engine.

Load Factor - The ratio of the average load imposed

on the prime mover to the prime mover rating.

Load-Sensing Governor - An engine speed control

device for use on engine generator sets to anticipate engine fuel setting changes as a function of changes in electrical load.

Lube Oil Heater - A device used to heat the engine

lube oil at cold ambient temperatures.

Maximum Brake Power - Highest power developed at

a given speed.

Mechanical Governor - Achieves prime mover speed

control by balancing the force exerted by rotating ﬂ yweights against a spring force.

Naturally Aspirated - Engine combustion air ﬂ ow is

not assisted by artiﬁ cial means such as a supercharger or turbocharger.

Net Power - Power output of a “fully equipped” engine. Normal Duty Air Cleaner - Applications where there is

a relatively light concentration of dust.

Open Cycle Gas Turbine Engine - A gas turbine

engine in which the working ﬂ uid enters the engine from the atmosphere and discharged to the atmosphere.

Overheating - An operation condition where coolant

temperature exceeds design intent. This may be caused by deﬁ ciency in the cooling system or by abnormal operation conditions.

Overspeed Governor - A mechanical speeds-sensitive

device that through mechanical or electrical action (operation of a switch) acts to shut down the engine and limit the speed by cutting off fuel and or air supply should the engine speed exceed a preset maximum.

Parasitic Load - The extra load caused by the engine

driven accessories such as the cooling system fan and battery-charging alternator.

Partial Flow Filter - A ﬁ lter which ﬁ lters only a part of a

total system ﬂ uid.

Peak Shaving - Process by which utility customer

minimizes utility charges by either generating power and eliminating excessive demand charges or by shedding load.

Piston Speed - The piston speed of an engine is the

total feet of travel made by each piston in one minute. Formula is: Piston Speed = Stroke in feet x rpm x 2

Pre-Alarms - Warning prior to actually actuating the

automatic engine safeties to indicated impending shutdown.

Pre-Cooler - A heat exchanger that reduces the

temperature of the working ﬂ uid before initial compression.

Pre-Lube - An auxiliary to the standard lube oil pump

which provides lubrication to the engine prior to starting.

Pressure Reducing Valve (Gas) - Valve used to

reduce gas line pressure to usable limits of the gas carburetor.

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Pressure Reducing Valve (Water) - Valve used to

reduce water pressure between the main and the engine-cooling system

Primary Filter - The ﬁ rst stage of a multi-stage ﬁ lter

system.

Pyrometer - An instrument used to measure exhaust

gas temperatures.

Radiator - A heat exchanger that is used to transfer

engine coolant heat to the atmosphere.

Radiator Cooling - Engine coolant heat is dissipated

to the atmosphere through a radiator.

Rated Power - Power speciﬁ ed by the manufacturer

for a given application at a given (rated) speed.

Raw Water Cooling - See City Water Cooling Recuperator - A heat exchanger in which energy is

transmitted from a ﬂ owing hot ﬂ uid to a ﬂ owing cold ﬂ uid through a wall whose function is to separate the two ﬂ uids.

Reheat - Combustion subsequent to expansion. Regenerative Cycle Gas Turbine Engine - A gas

turbine engine employing exhaust heat recovery in the thermodynamic cycle consisting of successive compression, regenerative heating, combustion, expansion, and regenerative cooling (heat transferred to compressor discharge air) or the working ﬂ uid.

Regenerator - A heat exchanger in which energy is

transmitted from a ﬂ owing hot ﬂ uid to a ﬂ owing cold ﬂ uid by alternately passing these ﬂ uids through the same mass of material.

Remote Radiator - Radiator and fan that is not

mounted to, or driven by the unit.

Residential Silencer - An exhaust mufﬂ er used to

produce the silencing level usually associated with residential areas.

Secondary Filter - The second stage of a multi-stage

ﬁ lter system.

Single Shaft Turbine Engine - A gas turbine engine

in which the compressor and turbine are mechanically coupled to the same shaft, and mechanically connected to the power output shaft either directly or though gearing.

Skin Enclosure - Weatherproof enclosure that is

minimal and usual follows contour of equipment being protected.

Sound Attenuation - Reduction of objectionable noise

to acceptable limits.

Spark Arrestor - A device used to prevent sparks from

being released with exhaust gases.

Speciﬁ c Fuel Consumption - The amount of fuel

consumed to produce a unit of work, usually expressed in pounds per horsepower or kilowatt hours, or grams per kilowatt hour.

Speciﬁ c Heat Rejection - The heat rejection of the

engine expressed essentially in British thermal units per minute per brake horsepower.

Spin-on Filter - A disposable ﬁ lter which mates to

a permanent base and is attached by turning onto a threaded base stud.

Standby Service

utilized in the event of failure of the utility supplied service.

Starting System - A group of components that is used

to initially rotate the prime mover at a sufﬁ cient speed to get it started.

Suction Fan - A fan positioned in a cooling system so

that air passes through the radiator before entering the fan.

Supercharged Gas Turbine Engine - A gas turbine

engine containing two mechanically independent rotors, each containing a driving turbine; one compressor operating with an air inlet at atmospheric pressure, which supercharges the second compressor inlet to a higher pressure. Useful power may be taken from either of the rotors, or from a free power turbine.

Supply Pump - A pump for transferring the fuel from

the tank and delivering it to the injection pump.

Surge Tank - A separate tank in the cooling system

provided to perform one or more of the following functions; (1) ﬁ lling, (2) coolant reservoir, (3) de- aeration, (4) retention of coolant expelled from radiator by expansion and/or after boil, and (5) visible ﬂ uid level indication.

System Air Flow Restriction - The static pressure

differential which occurs at a given air ﬂ ow from air entrance through air exit in a system, generally measured in inches (millimeters) of water.

Thermo-Regulating Valve - Heat actuated valve

that limits amount of city or raw cooling water into the system to conserve water and regulate cooling.

Thermostat - A device that is heat actuated to maintain

the circulating water temperature at a pre-determined level.

Timing Device - A device responsive to engine speed

- Generating equipment exclusively

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and/or load to control the timed relationship between injection cycle and engine cycle.

Torque - Force required to move a shaft around its

axis, measured in foot pounds.

T orsional Analysis - A twisting vibration which occurs

in rotating machinery that contains two or more masses having signiﬁ cant moments in inertia interconnected by shafting having signiﬁ cant elasticity.

Total Energy - Refers to process whereby independent

user generates on-site power and utilizes exhaust heat, and jacket water heat in addition to electricity generated.

Turbine - That component of the engine which

produces torque from expansion of the working ﬂ uid. Consists usually of turbine nozzle and a turbine wheel which together constitute a turbine stage. A multi-stage turbine comprises more than one turbine stage.

Turbine Nozzle - An arrangement of stationary blades

for directing the ﬂ ow of gas into a turbine wheel.

Turbine Wheel - The rotary component of the turbine

stage which consists of a series of blades or buckets through which the ﬂ uid ﬂ ows. May be an axial, radial, or mixed ﬂ ow type.

Turbocharger - A centrifugal air pump driven by engine

exhaust gases and used to supply engine charge air at ﬂ ows and pressures above atmospheric.

Two Cycle Engine - An internal combustion engine

utilizing two strokes to complete the power cycle.

Two-Shaft Free Power Turbine Engine - A gas turbine

engine in which the compressor and its driving turbine are mounted on one shaft and the output power turbine is mounted on a separate shaft supplying useful power.

Two Spool Engine - See Supercharged Gas Turbine

Engine

Two Stage Element - A ﬁ lter element assembly

composed of two ﬁ lter media in series.

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CERTAIN PARTS OF THIS MANUAL WERE REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION OF DEERE & COMPANY,

4420 14th AVE N.W.

SEATTLE, WA 98107

TEL: (206) 789-3880 FAX: (206) 782-5455

Northern Lights and Lugger are registered trademarks

of Alaska Diesel Electric Inc. S100 | 06/06

www.northern-lights.com

Northern Lights Power Generation Reference Manual

Specifications and Main Features

Frequently Asked Questions

User Manual