Game PC Age of Empires User Manual

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ContentsContents

Contents

ContentsContents

Chapter 1: Playing the game......................................................... 1

About Age of Empires ..................................................................................... 2

Installing Age of Empires ............................................................................. 3

Starting Age of Empires ................................................................................ 4

Getting started .............................................................................................. 4

Choosing a game .............................................................................................. 7

Winning a game ................................................................................................ 8

Choosing a civilization ................................................................................ 1 2

Playing a random map, death match, or scenario .................................... 12

Playing a campaign ....................................................................................... 14

Playing a saved game ................................................................................... 15

Playing a multiplayer game ........................................................................ 15

Using the interface ..................................................................................... 2 0

Chapter 2: Exploring the map ..................................................... 23

Exploring ....................................................................................................... 24

Grouping villagers, military units, and boats ......................................... 24

Moving villagers, military units, and boats ............................................. 25

Transporting units across water .............................................................. 26

Terrain ........................................................................................................... 26

Chapter 3: Building your civilization ....................................... 27

Gathering resources ................................................................................... 28

Villager tasks .............................................................................................. 30

Creating villagers, military units, and boats ......................................... 31

Constructing buildings ............................................................................... 32

Repairing buildings and boats .................................................................... 33

Trading ........................................................................................................... 34

Chapter 4: Researching Technology ......................................... 35

About technology ......................................................................................... 36

Advancing through the ages ....................................................................... 37

Researching technology ............................................................................. 39

Upgrading military units, boats, walls, and towers ............................... 40

Chapter 5: Engaging in combat ................................................... 41

Engaging in combat ....................................................................................... 42

Diplomacy ....................................................................................................... 43

Allied victory ............................................................................................... 43

Tribute ........................................................................................................... 44

Healing villagers and military units ........................................................ 45

Converting enemy units ............................................................................... 45

Unit attributes ............................................................................................. 46

Chapter 6:

Creating and customizing scenarios and campaigns .......... 47

Using the scenario builder ......................................................................... 48

Using the campaign editor ........................................................................... 62

Chapter 7: Ancient Cultures ...................................................... 63

Assyrian culture (1800 to 600 BC) ............................................................ 64

Babylonian culture (1900 to 539 BC) ....................................................... 67

Ancient Choson culture (2333 to 108 BC) ................................................ 71

Egyptian culture (5000 to 30 BC) .............................................................. 74

Greek culture (2100 to 146 BC) ................................................................. 77

Hittite culture (2000 to 1200 BC) ............................................................. 82

Minoan culture (2200 to 1200 BC) ............................................................. 85

Persian culture (700 to 332 BC) ................................................................ 88

Phoenician culture (1200 to 146 BC) ........................................................ 9 2

Shang culture (1800 to 1000 BC) ............................................................... 95

Sumerian culture (5000 to 2230 BC) ......................................................... 99

Yamato culture (300 to 800 AD) ............................................................... 103

Appendix ....................................................................................... 107

Unit Attributes Table ................................................................................ 108

Technology Costs & Benefits Table ......................................................... 109

Building Attributes Tables ....................................................................... 110

Assyrian Technology Tree ........................................................................ 111

Babylonian Technology Tree .................................................................... 112

Ancient Choson Technology Tree ............................................................ 113

Egyptian Technology Tree ......................................................................... 114

Greek Technology Tree ............................................................................. 115

Hittite Technology Tree ............................................................................ 116

Minoan Technology Tree ............................................................................ 117

Persian Technology Tree .......................................................................... 118

Phoenician Technology Tree ..................................................................... 119

Shang Technology Tree ............................................................................. 120

Sumerian Technology Tree ........................................................................ 121

Yamato Technology Tree ........................................................................... 122

Index ............................................................................................. 123

Credits ......................................................................................... 126

To play the learning campaign

1 On the Age of Empires menu, click Single Player.
2 Click Campaign.
3 Type your player name, or click a player name in the Name list.
4 Click OK to display the list of campaigns.
5 Select the Ascent of Egypt Learning Campaign. Only the first scenario

is displayed. After you complete a scenario, the next scenario in the campaign
appears at the end of the list.

6 Select the Difficulty Level (the skill of civilizations controlled by the

computer). The levels range from easy to hardest.

7 Click OK to start the scenario.

After the cinematic plays, the scenario instructions are revealed. To display the
scenario instructions while you are playing the game, click the Menu button
on the menu bar, and then click Scenario Instructions.

Setting up a game

Before you start a game, you must choose which type of game to play—single
player or multiplayer, and random map, scenario, or campaign, as explained in
“Choosing a game” in this chapter.

The type of game you choose determines what you must do to win the game, as
explained in “Winning a game” in this chapter.

You can play one of twelve mighty civilizations, each with different strengths and
weaknesses, as explained in “Choosing a civilization” in this chapter.

Starting on an unexplored map

The slow gradual

process of human

evolution and

technological

advance brought

our human

ancestors safely

to the end of the

last Ice Age

10,000 years ago.

As the ice

receded, the land

reentered a cycle

of gradually

increasing plant

and wildlife

abundance.

Humans by this

point had spread

around the world

and were

sufficiently

advanced to begin

dominating instead

of just surviving.

You start the game with a few villagers and a Town Center on an unexplored (black)
map. Moving a villager into the black area reveals the map terrain. To move a
villager, click the villager, and then right-click the location to move to. Enemy
buildings and walls are not visible until you explore the area of the map where they
are located. For more information, see “Exploring,” and “Moving villagers, military
units, and boats” in Chapter 2.

As you explore the map, you discover resources to increase your stockpile of food,
wood, stone, and gold. Villagers can chop trees for wood, forage berry bushes,
hunt animals, and fish for food, as well as mine for stone and gold. To assign a

5

The first

archaeological

evidence of

human culture is

stone tools. The

oldest

discovered so far

date back 2.5

million years

and initiate the

period called

the Old Stone

Age

(Paleolithic).

villager a task, click a villager, and then right-click a work site, such as a tree,
animal, or stone mine. For more information, see “Villager tasks” in Chapter 3. You
can also increase your stockpile by trading with or receiving tribute from other
civilizations, as explained in “Trading” in Chapter 3 and “Tribute” in Chapter 5.

Building your civilization

You use the resources (food, wood, stone, gold) in your stockpile to construct
buildings, as explained in “Constructing buildings” in Chapter 3. You must build
enough Houses to support the population of your civilization. Each House supports
four villagers, boats, or military units. Each civilization can create a maximum of 50
villagers, military units, and boats, as explained in “Creating villagers, military units,
and boats” in Chapter 3.

Advancing through the ages

The resources in your stockpile are also used to advance your civilization through
the different ages. There are four ages: Stone Age, Tool Age, Bronze Age, and Iron
Age. You typically start the game in the Stone Age and strive to advance to the
Iron Age. To advance to the next age, you must have a Town Center and build two
different buildings from the current age. Then click the Town Center, and click the
Advance to Next Age button. For more information, see “Advancing through
the ages” in Chapter 4.

As you advance through the ages, you can build new buildings and military units
and research new technologies that benefit your civilization. For example,
researching Leather Armor decreases the damage your military units receive in
combat. The buildings, military units, and technologies that are available depend on
which civilization you are playing. The technology trees for each civilization are in
the Appendix.

Engaging in combat

Military units and villagers can engage in combat
on land. War ships can engage in combat at sea.
To win a game by military conquest, your
civilization (or team) must destroy all enemy
villagers, military units, war ships, and
buildings. You do not need to destroy trade
vessels, transport vessels, fishing vessels,
Artifacts, Ruins, or walls. You can pursue an
allied victory with other civilizations as explained in
“Allied victory” in Chapter 5.

Wounded villagers and military units can be healed by a
Priest as explained in “Healing villagers and military units”
in Chapter 5. Enemy villagers, military units, buildings, and
boats can be converted by a Priest, as explained in
“Converting enemy units” in Chapter 5. Damaged
buildings and boats can be repaired by a villager as
explained in “Repairing buildings and boats” in Chapter 3.

6 Chapter 1: Playing the Game

Choosing a game

You can play single player and multiplayer games based on randomly generated
maps, scenarios, or campaigns.

• Campaign – Single player – A predesigned series of related scenarios that

chronicle the rise of one of the mighty civilizations of antiquity. New players
should play the Ascent of Egypt learning campaign to learn the basics of Age
of Empires. For information about campaigns, see “Playing a campaign” in this
chapter.

• Scenario – Single player or multiplayer – A predesigned game that is not part

of a campaign. For information about single player scenarios, see “Playing a
random map, death match, or scenario” in this chapter. For information about
multiplayer scenarios, see “Playing a multiplayer game” in this chapter.

• Random map – Single player or multiplayer – A game based on a randomly

generated world map. You can change the game settings and the victory
condition. For information about random maps, see “Playing a random map,
death match, or scenario” in this chapter.

• Random map (death match) – Single player or multiplayer – A variation of

a random map in which players start with stockpiles of 20,000 food, wood,
stone, and 10,000 gold and then fight to the death. For information about
death matches, see “Playing a random map, death match, or scenario” in this
chapter.

• Random map (score) – Single player or multiplayer –

A variation of a random map in which the victory condition
is based on the players’ scores. For information about
random maps, see “Playing a random map, death match,
or scenario” in this chapter.

• Random map (time limit) – Single player or

multiplayer – A variation of a random map in
which the victory condition is based on who
earns the highest score within the time limit. For
information about random maps, see “Playing a
random map, death match, or scenario” in this

chapter.

• Cooperative game –

Multiplayer – A random
map, death match, or
scenario in which two or
more human players share
control of a single
civilization. Each player can
give unrestricted (and even
conflicting) orders to all
units. For information about
cooperative games, see
“Playing a multiplayer
game” in this chapter.

Although the

oldest surviving

tools are made of

stone, it is

possible that

tools of organic

materials were in

use earlier and

have not survived.

Animal bones,

feather quills,

claws, and

objects of wood

or fiber could

have all been

used as tools

before stone.

7

Weapons are

technology.

They can be the

difference

between

survival and

extinction for

an individual, a

tribe, or a

culture. Human

predecessors

were clearly

advanced and

competing well

before they

developed the

first tools, but

the growing

technological

sophistication of

humans has been

the means of our

dominance over

all other

species, at least

so far.

Winning a game

In a random map or death match, you can win the game by achieving any one of the
standard victory conditions: Artifacts (the first player to control and hold all
Artifacts wins), Ruins (the first player to control and hold all Ruins wins), Wonders
(the first player to build and hold a Wonder wins), or Conquest (the first player to
conquer all enemies). Players can pursue any of the standard victory conditions to
win. For example, player 1 might try to control all Artifacts, player 2 might try to
build a Wonder, and player 3 might try to achieve military conquest. The first player
to be successful wins the game.

Or, if you do not want to use the standard victory conditions, you can choose your
own victory condition: Conquest (all players must try to achieve military conquest),
Score (all players compete to achieve the specified score) or Time Limit (all players
compete to achieve the highest score within the time limit).

To change the victory condition in a single player game, see “Playing a random
map, death match, or scenario” in this chapter. To change the victory condition in a
multiplayer game, see “Playing a multiplayer game” in this chapter.

Artifacts

Artifacts are objects akin to the Ark of the Covenant that were crafted by now-lost
cultures and bring prestige to the civilization that possesses them. They can be
captured from other civilizations in a game and carried away. Control of Artifacts
counts toward your score. A random map contains five Artifacts or none.

In a random map with standard victory conditions, the first civilization (or team) to
control all Artifacts for 2000 years wins the game. An Artifact is controlled by the
last civilization to move a villager, military unit, or boat nearby. The color of an
Artifact indicates which civilization controls it. The owner of the Artifact can move it
on land or on a transport vessel. Artifacts cannot be destroyed. For example, if a
transport vessel sinks with an Artifact on board, the Artifact appears on a nearby
shore.

When a civilization controls all Artifacts, the other civilizations are notified and a
countdown clock appears in the upper-right corner of the game screen. The color of
the clock indicates which civilization controls the Artifacts. The first civilization to
control all Artifacts for 2000 years (until the clock reaches zero, approximately 15
minutes), wins the game. If an Artifact changes ownership before 2000 years have
passed, the countdown is terminated.

Ruins

Ruins are ancient structures resembling Stonehenge that were built by now-lost
cultures and bring prestige to the civilization that controls them. Ruins cannot be
moved. Ownership may be taken away by another civilization. Control of Ruins
counts toward your score. A random map contains five Ruins or none.

8 Chapter 1: Playing the Game

In a random map with standard victory conditions, the first civilization (or team) to
control all Ruins for 2000 years wins the game. Ruins are controlled by the last
civilization to move a villager, military unit, or boat nearby. The color of a Ruin
indicates which civilization controls it. Ruins cannot be destroyed.

When a civilization controls all Ruins, the other civilizations are notified and a
countdown clock appears in the upper-right corner of the game screen. The color of
the clock indicates which civilization controls the Ruins. The first civilization to
control all Ruins for 2000 years (until the clock reaches zero, approximately 15
minutes), wins the game. If a Ruin changes ownership before 2000 years have
passed, the countdown is terminated.

Wonders

A Wonder is the crowning achievement of civilizations who build one. Examples of
historic ancient Wonders that have become icons for their civilization are the
Egyptian Pyramids, the Great Wall of China, and the Athenian Acropolis. A
civilization can build a Wonder after advancing to the Iron Age.

In a random map with standard victory conditions, the first civilization to build a
Wonder that stands for 2000 years wins the game. When a civilization begins to
build a Wonder, the other civilizations are notified and shown its location on the
diamond-shaped map in the lower-right corner of the game screen. When the
Wonder is completed, the other civilizations are again notified and a countdown
clock appears in the upper-right corner of the game screen. The color of the clock
indicates which civilization owns the Wonder. The first civilization to build a Wonder
that stands for 2000 years (until the clock reaches zero, approximately 15
minutes), wins the game. If a Wonder is destroyed before 2000 years have passed,
the countdown is terminated.

The earliest

preserved human

tools are fine-

grained stones

that have been

struck apart to

create sharp

edges.

A civilization can build more than one Wonder. Wonders standing at the end of the
game (even if they were not the first Wonder to stand for 2000 years) provide the
owning civilization with points, as explained in the Score section in this chapter.

9

The pace of

technological

change has

gradually

accelerated

over time,

although there

have been

periods of

relative

quickness and

slowness, or

even decline,

and a few

junctures where

the rate of

acceleration

shifted into a

higher gear.

There have been

at least two

dark ages in the

West where

technology and

knowledge

declined or was

lost  the first

beginning

around 1200 BC

and the second

around 400 AD.

The destruction

of the great

library in

Alexandria in

391 AD by

religious zealots

may alone have

set back our

knowledge by

several hundred

years.

Conquest

In a random map with standard
victory conditions, you can win the
game by achieving military conquest even if the other players are
pursuing one of the other standard victory conditions (Artifacts, Ruins, or
Wonders). If you do not want to play the standard victory conditions, you can set
the victory condition to Conquest.

To win a game by military conquest, your civilization (or team) must destroy all
enemy villagers, military units, war ships, and buildings. You do not need to destroy
trade vessels, transport vessels, fishing vessels, Artifacts, Ruins, or walls.

Time Limit

If you do not want to play the standard victory conditions, you can set the victory
condition to Time Limit. In a time limit game, you select the time limit after which
the game automatically ends. A countdown clock is displayed in the upper-right
corner of the game screen. The civilization (or team) with the highest score when
the clock reaches zero wins the game. The team score is the average of all team
members scores.

Score

If you do not want to play the standard victory conditions, you can set the victory
condition to Score. In a score game, the game creator chooses the score to
achieve. The first civilization (or team) to achieve the score or military conquest
wins the game. In a score game, constructing Wonders and owning Artifacts and
Ruins provides points but does not automatically end the game. The team score is
the average of all team members scores. Score can be set as a victory condition
or used simply as a measure of achievement.

10 Chapter 1: Playing the Game

The great civilizations of antiquity were those that achieved a high
level of cultural and technological development. Greatness was also
measured by influence over distance and over time. The Sumerian
civilization, for example, was never particularly large but the
importance of the wheel and writing, for which they are credited, was
enormous. The Greeks, more than any other ancient culture, had the
greatest impact on the modern world.

Greatness was somewhat dependent on military prowess. Most of

the important ancient civilizations were military powers at one

time and spread their culture by conquest. Those

cultures that did not develop a strong military did
not usually last long enough to have a significant

impact on world events. A strong military ensured

longevity and the opportunity to become great.

Great civilizations left a lasting legacy of architecture, literature,

language, ideas, and technological innovation that influenced those

that followed. Age of Empires encompasses this definition of civilization

with its score system. The greatness of your civilization is measured by the

points you earn for a variety of achievements during the play of a game. The
civilization score for your civilization can be compared to that of others in your
game during play and at game end. Civilization scores are calculated for all players
(human and computer) as the game progresses.

The first stone

tools may have

allowed humans

to butcher fresh

kills instead of

searching for

carrion.

To display civilization scores

The civilization scores are shown in the lower-right corner of the game screen.

➤ To turn the display on or off, click the S button above the diamond-

shaped map in the lower-right corner of the game screen.

The scores are shown as civilization score/team score. The list of players is
ranked by team score and then by civilization score. The team score is the
average of all team members scores.

➤ To display the details of your score, click the Menu button on the

menu bar, and then click Achievements.

For information about how scores are calculated, refer to the Technology Tree
Foldout. The bonus points (such as most military units) can change ownership
throughout the game. For example, if player 1 has 30 military units and player 2 has
35 military units, player 2 receives the 25-point bonus. However, if player 1 builds 6
more military units (or kills 6 of player 2s military units), player 1 receives the 25­point bonus.

11

Hunter-

gatherers were

probably not

unsettled

wanderers

taking what

came their way.

Their existence

and survival

depended on

systematically

exploiting the

resources

around them

according to

what has been

called an

optimal

foraging

strategy. They

moved to the

seashore to

harvest oysters

in season, near

the nut trees in

the fall, and

elsewhere to be

present when

fruits were ripe.

Choosing a civilization

Play one of historys twelve mightiest
civilizations! Command the Greek
phalanx, the worlds best infantry for
hundreds of years. Lead the chariots
of the Hittites, or Assyrians. Build up
the vast agricultural empire of Egypt,
Babylon, or Sumeria. Guide the
Persians from their small enclave to
prominence as a world power.
Guide the Shang (China), Ancient
Choson (Korea), or Yamato
(Japan) for control of Asia. Dominate world sea trade
as the Phoenicians or Minoans.

Each civilization has strengths and weaknesses and can research different
technologies. For information about the special attributes of each civilization, refer
to the Technology Tree Foldout. The technology trees for each civilization are in the
Appendix and in the Docs folder on the Age of Empires disc.

The civilization you choose to play depends on the victory conditions of the game
and the strengths and weaknesses of your opponents. For example, if a world has
extensive seas, choose to play a civilization with advantages in ship building or
speed (Yamato, Phoenician, Minoan). If you are competing with the Persians,
prepare for eventual clashes with War Elephants. More than one player can choose
the same civilization. In a multiplayer cooperative game, two or more players can
choose the same player number and share control of a single civilization.

Playing a random map,
death match, or scenario

A random map is a single player or multiplayer game based on a randomly
generated world map. You can win the game by achieving any one of the standard
victory conditions, or you can set the victory condition to Conquest, Score, or Time
Limit.

A death match is a random map in which players start with stockpiles of 20,000
food, wood, stone, and 10,000 gold. You can win the game by achieving a military
conquest, building a Wonder, or achieving the highest score.

A scenario is a predesigned game that is not part of a campaign. The victory
conditions are revealed when you start the scenario. You can create custom
scenarios using the scenario builder and share them with other players.

For information about playing a multiplayer random map, death match, or scenario
see Playing a multiplayer game in this chapter.

12 Chapter 1: Playing the Game

To play a random map,
death match, or scenario

1 On the Age of Empires menu, click Single Player.

2 Click Random Map, Death Match, or Scenario.

If you are playing a scenario, select the scenario to play, and then click OK.

3 Select the player settings:

• Civ  Each civilization has special skills and can

research different technologies, as explained in
Choosing a civilization in this chapter. More than
one player can choose the same civilization.

• Player  Starting position on the game map. To

change the setting, click the player number. The color
of the player number corresponds to the color of the
civilization.

• Team  Players who want to start the game as allies

can select a team by clicking the Team number. A
dash () in the Team box indicates no team. Players
on the same team automatically have their diplomatic
stance set to Ally and Allied Victory set. To
change these settings during the game, click
Diplomacy on the menu bar.

• Number of Players  In a single player game, your opponents are

computer players.

4 If you want to change the scenario settings, click Settings. You can change

the following settings:

• Map Size  (random map and death match only) The size of the map.

The larger the map, the longer the game.

• Map Type  (random map and death match only) The distribution of land

and water on the map.

• Victory Condition  The first civilization (or team) to achieve the

victory condition wins the game. For information about the victory
conditions, see Winning a game in this chapter. Some scenarios contain
individual victory conditions, which cannot be changed.

• Starting Age  The age at which the game begins. For example, if the

game begins in the Bronze Age, the Bronze Age has just begun and all
Stone Age and Tool Age technology has been completed. Nomad starts in
the Stone Age and lets you choose where to build your Town Center. The
default setting for a random map is Stone Age. To use the starting age a
scenario was designed with, select Default.

Metal tools were

first made from

raw copper found

on the Earths

surface and

hammered into

useful or artistic

shapes.

13

The creation of

writing was one

of those

junctures after

which the

increase of

knowledge was

permanently

and rapidly

accelerated.

Writing greatly

expanded the

preservation,

spread, and

pass-through of

information.

Computers have

increased the

rate of

acceleration in

a similar

manner.

• Difficulty Level  The skill of civilizations controlled by the computer.

The levels range from easy to hardest.

• Resources  Determines the quantity of resources (food, wood, stone,

gold) in each players stockpile. The default setting for a random map is
the lowest level of resources. To use the resource setting a scenario was
designed with, select Default.

• Fixed Positions  Determines whether civilizations in a random map

game begin the game in random positions on the map or in fixed
(clockwise) positions based on their player number. Team members with
consecutive player numbers are located adjacent to each other if you
select Fixed Positions.

• Full Tech Tree  Allows

all civilizations to research
all technologies in the
game. The special
attributes usually
associated with each
civilization are removed.

• Reveal Map 

Determines whether the
map terrain is visible at the
beginning of the game or
revealed as you explore it.

5 Click Start Game.

Playing a campaign

A campaign is a predesigned series of related scenarios that chronicle the rise of
one of the mighty civilizations of antiquity. You must play the scenarios in a
campaign in sequence, using the settings and victory conditions with which each
scenario was designed. New players should play the Ascent of Egypt learning
campaign to learn the basics of Age of Empires.

You can create your own campaigns using the campaign editor, as explained in
Using the campaign editor in Chapter 6.

To play a campaign

1 On the Age of Empires menu, click Single Player.

2 Click Campaign.

3 Type your player name, or click a player name in the Name list.

To add a new name to the list, click New, and then type a name.

To delete a name from the list, click the name to delete, and then click
Remove.

4 Click OK to display the list of campaigns.

14 Chapter 1: Playing the Game

5 Select the campaign to play.

The scenarios in the campaign are displayed in the
Select Scenario list. If you have not previously
played the campaign using your current player
name, only the first scenario is displayed. After
you complete a scenario, the next scenario in the
campaign appears in the list.

6 If more than one scenario is listed, select the

scenario you want to play.

7 Select the Difficulty Level (the skill of

civilizations controlled by the computer). The levels
range from easy to hardest.

8 Click OK to start the scenario.

After the cinematic plays, the scenario instructions are revealed. To display
the scenario instructions while you are playing the game, click the Menu
button on the menu bar, and then click Scenario Instructions.

The map that appears before a campaign scenario shows the area where the
current scenario takes place and the area(s) where previous scenarios in the
campaign have taken place.

Playing a saved game

To play a saved game

1 On the Age of Empires menu, click Single Player,

and then click Saved Game.

-or-

From within the game, click the Menu button on the menu bar,
and then click Load.

2 Select the saved game to play, and then click OK.

Playing a multiplayer game

You can play a random map or scenario with up to eight players connected across
a network or the Internet and two players across a modem or serial connection. For
information about sharing Age of Empires discs in a multiplayer game, see
Starting Age of Empires in this chapter. The player with the most powerful
computer should host the game.

Two or more players can play a cooperative game in which they share control of a
single civilization. Each player can give unrestricted (and even conflicting) orders to
all units. To play a cooperative game, players must select the same player number
before starting a multiplayer game.

If a players connection is lost during a multiplayer game, the player cannot rejoin
the game.

15

The conversion

by our

predecessors

from hunter-

gatherer to

herder-farmer,

circa 8000 BC, is

the great

dichotomy of the

human

experience. From

that point on,

the dominance of

our species, at

least to the

present, was

assured.

To select a multiplayer connection

1 On the Age of Empires menu, click Multiplayer.

2 Type your player Name.

3 Select the Connection Type. The connection types listed depend on the

hardware, software, and services you are using. Common connection types
include:

••

• IPX Connection for DirectPlay  Connect using a network that uses

••

the IPX protocol. If you do not know which protocol your network uses,
check with your network administrator.

••

• Internet TCP/IP Connection for DirectPlay  Connect using the

••

Internet or a network that uses the TCP/IP protocol. If you do not know
which protocol your network uses, check with your network administrator.

••

• Modem Connection for DirectPlay  Connect two computers using

••

a modem. Age of Empires requires a modem speed of 28.8 Kbps or faster.

••

• Serial Connection for DirectPlay  Connect two computers using a

••

null-modem cable.

••

• Microsoft Internet Gaming Zone  Selecting this option exits Age of

••

Empires, launches your Web browser, and connects to Microsofts
Internet Gaming Zone. The Internet Gaming Zone is a quick and easy way
to find other Age of Empires players. For information about creating and
joining games on the Internet Gaming Zone, see the documentation
provided on the Internet Gaming Zone.

4 Click OK, and then join or create a multiplayer game as explained in the

following sections.

Joining a multiplayer game

To join a multiplayer game

1 Select a multiplayer connection, as

explained in the previous section.

2 Click Show Games to update

the list of multiplayer games.

3 Follow the instructions that appear

on the screen for the connection
type you are using.

If you are making a TCP/IP
connection across a Local Area
Network, in most cases you can
click OK instead of entering an IP
address.

4 Select the game to join, and then

click Join.

16 Chapter 1: Playing the Game

5 Select the player settings:

• Civ  Each civilization has special skills and can

research different technologies, as explained in
Choosing a civilization in this chapter. More
than one player can choose the same
civilization.

• Player  Starting position on the map and

color of civilization. To change the setting, click
the player number. To play a cooperative game,
two or more players can select the same player
number and share control of a single civilization.
Each player can give unrestricted (and even
conflicting) orders to all units.

• Team  Players who want to start the game as

allies can select a team by clicking the Team number. A dash () in the
Team box indicates no team. Players on the same team automatically
have their diplomatic stance set to Ally and Allied Victory set. To
change these settings during the game, click Diplomacy on the menu
bar.

17

Agriculture

removed much of

the uncertainty

in obtaining

food. People no

longer had to

search it out

over large areas

 they found

places where it

could be

produced in

abundant

quantities year

after year and

fixed themselves

there.

6 The game creator controls the other game settings shown on the screen.

You can discuss the game settings with the game creator and other players by
typing in the Chat box. To send your message, press ENTER. To chat with
other players during a game, press ENTER or click the Chat button on the
menu bar. For information about chatting, see Using the interface in this
chapter.

7 When you are ready to begin the game, click Im Ready! The names of

players who are ready are shown in green. If you change your mind before the
game starts, click the button again. The game does not begin until all players
are ready and the creator starts it.

Creating a multiplayer game

To create a multiplayer game

1 Select a multiplayer connection, as explained at the beginning of this section.

2 Click Create.

3 Type a name for the game.

4 Follow the instructions that appear on the screen for the connection type you

are using.

5 Select the player settings:

• Name  If you want to limit the number of players that can join the game,

close some of the positions. Closing a position that is filled by a player
ejects the player from the game. Open indicates that the position is
available for a human player. Computer indicates that the position is
played by the computer. Closed indicates that position is not available.

• Civ  Select a civilization for yourself and each computer player. Human

players choose their own civilization. Each civilization has special skills and
can research different technologies, as explained in Choosing a
civilization in this chapter. More than one player can choose the same
civilization.

• Player  Starting position on the map and color of

civilization. To change the setting, click the player
number. To play a cooperative game, two or more
players can select the same player number and
share control of a single civilization. Each player
can give unrestricted (and even conflicting)
orders to all units.

• Team  Players who want to start the game

as allies can select a team by clicking the
Team number. A dash (-) in the Team box
indicates no team. Players on the same
team automatically have their diplomatic
stance set to Ally and Allied Victory
set. To change these settings during the
game, click Diplomacy on the menu
bar.

18 Chapter 1: Playing the Game

6 To display your IP address, click the IP button. Other

players can type in your IP address to connect to your
game.

7 Click Settings to select a game to play (random map,

death match, or scenario). A list of scenarios appears
showing the name and number of players for each
scenario. Select the scenario to play. A description of the
scenario appears in the Scenario Instructions window.

You can change the following settings:

• Map Size  (random map and death match only) The

size of the map. The larger the map, the longer the
game.

• Map Type  (random map and death match only) The

distribution of land and water on the map.

• Victory Condition  The first civilization (or team) to achieve the

victory condition wins the game. For information about the victory
conditions, see Winning a game in this chapter. Some scenarios contain
individual victory conditions, which cannot be changed.

• Starting Age  The age at which the game begins. For example, if the

game begins in the Bronze Age, the Bronze Age has just begun and all
Stone Age and Tool Age technology has been completed. Nomad starts in
the Stone Age and lets you choose where to build your Town Center. The
default setting for a random map is Stone Age. To use the starting age a
scenario was designed with, select Default.

• Difficulty Level  The skill of civilizations controlled by the computer.

The levels range from easy to hardest.

• Resources  The quantity of resources (food, wood, stone, gold) in each

players stockpile. The default setting for a random map is the lowest level
of resources. To use the resource setting a scenario was designed with,
select Default.

• Enable Cheating  Determines whether players can use the cheat

codes.

• Fixed Positions  Determines whether civilizations in a random map

game begin the game in random positions on the map or in fixed
(clockwise) positions based on their player number. Team members with
consecutive player numbers are located adjacent to each other if you
select Fixed Positions.

• Full Tech Tree  Allows all civilizations to research all technologies in

the game. The special attributes usually associated with each civilization
are removed.

• Reveal Map  Determines whether the map terrain is visible at the

beginning of the game or revealed as you explore it.

8 When you are finished changing the settings, click Im Ready! so players

know the game settings will not change. All players must click the Im
Ready! button before you can click Start Game. The names of players who
are ready are shown in green.

The first

domesticated

grain is believed

to have been a

wild wheat that

grew in southern

Turkey. To make

the step of

domesticating this

plant, the early

gatherers had to

learn how to

harvest the grain

seeds, extract

the wheat kernel,

grind it, and bake

it, all before

they learned how

to grow the plant

and select it so

that it increased

in kernel size.

19

Stockpile counters 
Display the quantity of
resources (wood, food,
gold, stone) in your
stockpile.

Game map  To
scroll the map, move the
pointer to the edge of
the game screen in the
direction you want to
scroll, or use the arrow
keys.

Status line 
Displays label for
buttons with hot key,
cost, and benefit
(if applicable). Also
displays roll-over Help
for items on the screen.

Using the interface

Diplomacy button 
Displays the Diplomacy
dialog box so you can
choose your diplomatic
stance toward other

Age indicator  Displays the
current age (Stone Age, Tool Age,
Bronze Age, or Iron Age).

Next button 
Displays more
buildings that you
can construct.

players.

Menu button 
Displays the game
menu so you can save
a game, change game
settings, display online
Help, display your
achievements, etc.

Chat button 
Displays the Chat
interface so you
can send messages
to other players.

S button 
Displays player
scores.

Status box  Displays
hit points, attack, armor,
piercing armor, and range
of the selected unit.
Also displays Priest
rejuvenation percentage.

20 Chapter 1: Playing the Game

Command/Build/
Upgrade/Research
Buttons  Displays

commands, buildings
you can construct,
units you can upgrade,
and technologies you
can research.

Diamond-shaped map  Displays
the game map in smaller scale. Click a
location, or drag the white box to
display a location on the game map.

? button 
Displays popup
Help for items on
the game screen.

Chatting

To chat during a multiplayer game

1 Click the Chat button on the menu bar, and then select which players should

receive the message: allies, enemies, everyone, or a particular player.

-or-

To display only the chat text box, press ENTER.

2 Type a message. To taunt your opponents with a

recorded message, type a number from 1 to 25.

3 Press ENTER to send the message.

Changing the game settings

You can change the game speed, music volume, sound volume, screen size,
mouse interface, and roll-over Help used in the game.

To change the game settings

1 Start a game.

2 Click the Menu button on the menu bar.

3 Click Game Settings. You can change the following settings:

••

• Speed  The higher the game speed, the faster villagers, military units,

••

and boats move. Game time also elapses more quickly than real time.
Changing the game speed affects all civilizations.

••

• Music Volume  Move the slider down to decrease the music volume.

••

••

• Sound Volume  Move the slider down to decrease the volume of

••

sound effects.

••

• Screen Size  The default screen size is 800 x 600.

••

••

• Mouse Interface  The default setting is Two Buttons, which means

••

that the left mouse button is used to select a unit, and the right mouse
button is used to execute a command.

For example, to instruct a villager to hunt using Two Buttons, you would
left-click the villager and then right-click the animal to hunt. To instruct a
villager to hunt using One Button, you would left-click the villager and
then left-click the animal to hunt.

••

• Roll-over Help  The default setting is On, which displays tips on the

••

status line when you move the cursor over items such as trees, foraging
sites, buildings, etc.

Cattle are

considered the

most significant

domestication. In

addition to

providing meat,

milk, and hides,

they were also

valuable as

beasts of burden.

They pulled

wagons, greatly

improving land

transport. They

pulled plows,

greatly improving

agriculture. The

existence of

domesticated

cattle is thought

to have been

primarily

responsible for

the doubling of

population in the

Near East

between 4000 and

5000 BC.

21

Getting Help

Age of Empires provides online and popup Help.

To display online Help

The

agricultural

revolution made

possible the

first towns and

cities.

Dependable

local food

supplies

allowed

permanent

settlement, and

these

settlements

grew. People

built permanent

homes,

permanent

structures for

the production

and storage of

food, and an

entirely new

infrastructure

of civic

institutions

such as courts,

religious

centers, and

marketplaces as

the need for

these arose.

➤ On the Age of Empires menu, click Help.

-or-

From within a game, press F1 or click the Menu button on the menu bar, and
then click Help.

To return to the game from online Help, click the Game button.

To display popup Help

➤ Click the ? button in the lower-right corner of the game

screen, and then click an item on the screen.

To display the online Help from popup Help, click the
More Help button.

Saving and exiting

To save a game

1 Click the Menu button on the menu bar.

2 Click Save.

3 Type a name for the game, or select the game

to save.

Saved games are located in the Savegame folder where
Age of Empires is installed.

To exit a game

1 Click the Menu button on the menu bar.

2 Click Quit Game.

To resign a multiplayer game

1 Click the Menu button on the menu bar.

2 Click Resign.

All units on the map become visible so you can observe the game,
but you can no longer participate.

Hot keys

A list of hot keys is provided on the Technology Tree Foldout and in the Gameplay
section of the online Help.

22 Chapter 1: Playing the Game

Chapter 2

Chapter 2

Exploring the map

Exploring the map

Exploring

As the great ice sheets receded, humans followed in their wake, exploring and
settling newly uncovered lands modified by the changing climate. The world
changed dramatically in a short period. Human populations multiplied, coalesced
into groups, and began competing among each other, rather than with other
species, for the best food and resources. The foundations of the first great
civilizations were laid in some part by those groups that found and controlled the

best areas. Discovery and control of the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates River valleys
determined which of the wandering tribes in those regions would become Egypt,
Sumeria, and Babylonia.

At the start of a typical Age of Empires game, exploration is vital. Sources of food
and wood need to be found quickly. Artifacts and Ruins that are nearby should be
controlled. Nearby geography may suggest where defenses should be built to
stave off potential attackers. More distant resources should be noted for your
eventual expansion. And learning the location of enemies helps you plan your
attacks.

Unexplored areas of the map are black. Moving a villager, military unit, or boat into
a black area reveals the map. You cannot explore beyond the edge of the map.
Enemy buildings and walls are not visible until you explore the area of the map
where they are located. Once an area has been explored, buildings and walls
remain visible. However, changes to the buildings, such as age upgrades, damage,
and destruction are not visible unless the building or wall is within the sight of a

villager, military unit, or boat from your civilization. Enemy villagers, military units,
and boats are only visible when they attack or are within the sight of a unit from
your civilization.

Researching Writing lets allies share exploration.

Grouping villagers,
military units, and boats

Grouping lets you command several villagers, military units, or boats at the same
time.

To select a group

➤ Drag the pointer over the villagers, military units, or boats you want to group.

Or hold down the CTRL key and click each unit.

To create a group

➤ Select a group (as described above), then click the Group button. When you

click one member of the group, the other members are also selected.

To ungroup units

➤ Click a member of the group, and then click the Ungroup button.

24 Chapter 2: Exploring the map

To assign a number to a group

1 Select a group.

2 Press CTRL and the number to assign to the group. For example, to assign the

number 2 to a group, press CTRL+2. The number appears in the lower-left
corner of each unit in the group.

3 To select the group, press the number assigned to it. For example, to select

group 2, press the 2 key.

Moving villagers,
military units, and boats

How quickly villagers, military units, and boats move depends on the speed of the
unit and the game speed, as explained in Using the interface (Changing the game
settings) in Chapter 1.

Units near each other move in formation unless they are ordered to move to or
attack an object, in which case they converge on the object. You can use
waypoints to make units follow a defined path to their goal.

Researching the Wheel increases the speed of villagers. Polytheism increases the
speed of Priests, and Aristocracy increases the speed of Academy units.

The first

important

breakthrough in

metallurgy was

the discovery of

smelting, the

process of

extracting metals

from ore under

high

temperatures.

This greatly

expanded the use

of copper,

because ore was

much more common

than raw copper

that could be

hammered. By

4000 BC, small,

simple copper

objects were

widespread in the

Middle East.

25

The earliest

archeological

evidence of

rafts and water

craft comes

from the upper

Nile in Egypt and

dates about 4000

BC. This evidence

is primarily

pictures on

pottery

fragments and

on walls within

ancient tombs.

Prior to 4000 BC,

there is no

direct evidence

of human water

travel.

To move a villager, military unit, or boat

➤ Click a villager, military unit, or boat (or select a group), and then right-click a

location.

To move a villager, military unit, or boat using waypoints

1 Click a villager, military unit, or boat (or select a group).

2 Press SHIFT, and then right-click each point along the path. A waypoint marker

appears.

3 Release the SHIFT key, and then right-click the last point in the path. The unit

or group moves along the path you created.

Transporting units
across water

Villagers, military units, and Artifacts can be loaded aboard a transport vessel and
moved across water. Allied units can also be transported. Each transport vessel
can carry a limited number of villagers, military units, and Artifacts in each trip.

To load a transport vessel

1 Build a Light Transport or Heavy Transport at the Dock.

2 Click a villager, military unit, or Artifact (or select a

group), and then right-click the transport vessel to load.
The units are loaded onto the transport.

To unload a transport vessel

1 Click the transport vessel.

2 Click the Unload button.

3 Click a location on shore or in shallows.

Terrain

Terrain provides resources and has tactical or strategic uses in
combat. The types of terrain include:

• Water  Impassable to villagers and military units.

• Shallows  Water that is passable to villagers, military units, and boats.

• Forest  Impassable to villagers and military units.

• Cliff  Impassable to villagers and military units. Provides a 25 percent chance

that the attacking unit will cause triple damage on each hit when the target is
on the low side of the cliff.

• Elevation  Provides a 25 percent chance that the attacking unit will cause

triple damage on each hit when the target is at a lower elevation.

26 Chapter 2: Exploring the map

Chapter 3

Chapter 3

Building your civilization

Building your civilization

The scattered

foraging groups

within a large

region may have

come together

regularly,

perhaps during

the bountiful

summer or fall

seasons, to

celebrate,

select mates,

and trade. Such

gatherings

would have been

also a likely

time for new

technologies to

be shared.

Gathering resources

Stone Age humans obtained the basic necessities of life (food, shelter, and
clothing) by gathering food and raw materials or by killing animals. Providing the
basics of life was a full-time job. Native Americans on the northern plains, for
example, had several hundred different uses for parts of a slain buffalo. We can
presume that Siberian hunters made similarly extensive use of slain woolly
mammoths.

Advances in Stone Age tools and techniques gradually improved the lot of humans
by making it easier to acquire resources (better weapons and skills), to make more
efficient use of them (better tools), and to make it easier to store them (pottery,
drying, salting) for later use. The advent of animal domestication and agriculture
increased the rate of technological innovation by reducing the time needed for
providing basics. Some of the new-found leisure time was spent developing even
more innovations that led in turn to food surpluses, more efficient techniques, more
leisure, and more innovation.

In Age of Empires, the four resources of food, wood, stone, and gold are the
building blocks of your civilization. Stockpiles of these items are converted into
buildings and people. Most importantly, resources are expended to advance to new
technological ages and achieve new technology. The use of these resources
represents the costs in time and innovation required to take an important step
forward.

The resources in your stockpile are used to create villagers, train and upgrade
military units and boats, construct buildings, research technologies, and advance
through the ages. Villagers increase your stockpile of resources by farming, fishing,
hunting, etc., as explained in the following section. You can also increase your
stockpile by trading (as explained in Trading in this chapter) and by receiving
tribute from other civilizations (as explained in Tribute in Chapter 5).

28 Chapter 3: Building your civilization

The resources in your stockpile are shown in the upper-left corner of the game
screen. They include:

• Wood  Used to construct buildings, boats, and some military units. You

increase your stockpile of wood by assigning villagers to chop trees.

• Food  Used to create villagers, train and upgrade military units, research

technologies, and advance to the next age. You increase your stockpile of food
by assigning villagers to hunt, forage, farm, and fish. Fishing Boats and Fishing
Ships also fish for food. Berry bushes represent foraging sites, where ancient
man collected fruits, nuts, roots, and wild grains.

• Gold  Used to research technologies in later ages, create some military

units, advance to the Iron Age, and pay tribute to other civilizations. You
increase your stockpile of gold by trading with other civilizations and by
assigning villagers to collect gold from gold mines. In Age of Empires, gold
represents all types of precious metals, including gold, silver, bronze, and
copper.

• Stone  Used to build and upgrade towers and walls and research some

technologies. You increase your stockpile of stone by assigning villagers to
collect stone from stone mines. In Age of Empires, stone represents both
stone and clay.

To display the resources at a work site

➤ Click the work site. For example, to display the amount of gold a gold mine

contains, click the gold mine. The quantity of resources is displayed in the
status box in the lower-left corner of the game screen.

Sources of food, wood, stone, and gold are depleted as the resources are
gathered. For example, when a stone mine is depleted, it disappears. Researching
Coinage increases gold mine production. Domestication, the Plow, and Irrigation
increase Farm production.

29

The dense

populations of

towns increased

the incidence of

disease and

epidemics.

Measles, mumps,

smallpox, and

influenza spread

easily through

new towns. These

diseases are

thought to be

evolved versions

of diseases that

originally

afflicted animals

6000 to 8000

years ago.

Irrigation

incidentally

spread the

mosquito and the

diseases it

carried.

Villager tasks

Villagers perform a variety of tasks, including constructing and repairing buildings
and increasing your stockpile of resources by hunting, chopping wood, mining, etc.
Researching the Wheel increases the speed of villagers.

Villagers perform the following tasks:

• Builder  Constructs buildings.

• Farmer  Gathers food from a Farm. Food from farming is deposited at the

Town Center or Granary, whichever is closer. Researching Domestication, the
Plow, and Irrigation increases Farm production.

• Fisherman  Gathers food from fishing sites (jumping fish) near the shore in

streams and oceans. Food from fishing is deposited at the Town Center or
Storage Pit, whichever is closer. Fishing Boats and Fishing Ships also fish for
food, which they deposit at the Dock.

• Forager  Gathers food from foraging sites (berry bushes). Food from

foraging is deposited at the Town Center or Granary, whichever is closer.

• Gold Miner  Gathers gold from gold mines. Gold is deposited at the Town

Center or Storage Pit, whichever is closer. Researching Gold Mining increases
gold mining efficiency, and Coinage increases gold mine production.

• Hunter  Kills wild game (gazelles, elephants, lions, and alligators) for food.

Food from hunting is deposited at the Town Center or Storage Pit, whichever
is closer. Military units can also kill animals, but food cannot be gathered from
the carcass.

• Repairman  Repairs buildings and boats damaged in combat.

• Stone Miner  Gathers stone from stone mines. Stone is deposited at the

Town Center or Storage Pit, whichever is closer. Researching Stone Mining
and Siegecraft increases stone mining efficiency.

• Villager  Engaged in combat or not assigned a task. Researching Siegecraft

allows villagers to destroy walls and towers, and Jihad increases their combat
ability.

• Woodcutter  Chops trees for wood. Wood is deposited at the Town Center

or Storage Pit, whichever is closer. Researching Woodworking, Artisanship,
and Craftsmanship increases woodcutting efficiency.

To assign a villager a task

1 Click a villager.

2 Right-click a work site. For example, to assign a villager to mine for gold, right-

click a gold mine.

The villager goes to the work site, gathers as much of the resource as he can
carry, and deposits it at the Town Center, Granary, or Storage Pit (where it is
added to your stockpile), and returns to the work site to gather more. Fishing
Boats and Fishing Ships deposit food at the Dock.

30 Chapter 3: Building your civilization

The villager continues to perform a task until you assign a different task or until the
resource is depleted. If a resource is depleted, he searches for a new work site of
the same type within his sight and continues working. If the villager does not find a
new work site, he becomes idle.

Creating villagers,
military units, and boats

With new techniques and an improving tool kit, humans were able to expand into
more demanding climates as the Ice Age ended. As humans spread and adapted,
the need arose for better shelter from the elements as the seasons changed.
Where natural caves and other sources of shelter did not exist, humans
improvised. In ancient Russia, for example, large multifamily dwellings were framed
with mammoth bones and covered with mammoth skins. As humans became more
agricultural and sedentary, shelter became more elaborate and long-lasting.

Creating villagers, military units, and boats costs resources (food, wood, stone,
and gold). You must also have enough Houses to build a new villager, military unit,
or boat (one House supports four units). The Town Center also supports four units.
If a House is destroyed, you do not lose the units it supported, but you must build
new housing to support any new units.

Each civilization can support up to 50 villagers, military units, or boats. For
descriptions of the villagers, military units, and boats you can build, refer to the
Units section of the online Help.

To create a villager

1 Click the Town Center.

2 Click the Create Villager button.

After a brief training period, the villager appears beside the Town Center.

To train a military unit

1 Build a Barracks, Archery Range, Stable, Siege Workshop, Academy, or

Temple.

2 Click the building.

3 Click the button of the military unit to train. For example, to train a Clubman (at

the Barracks), click the Train Clubman button.

After a brief training period, the military unit appears beside the building.

31

To build a boat

1 Build a Dock.

2 Click the Dock.

3 Click the button of the boat to build. For example, to build a Fishing Boat, click

the Build Fishing Boat button.

After a brief training period, the boat appears beside the Dock.

To delete a villager, military unit, building, or boat

➤ Click a unit that belongs to your civilization, and then press the DELETE key.

You can delete your own units and buildings at any time. If you delete a building
while it is under construction, 50 percent of the resources from the unbuilt portion
of the building are returned to your stockpile. For example, a Storage Pit costs 120
wood. If you delete a Storage Pit immediately after you begin building it, 60 wood is
returned to your stockpile. If you delete a Storage Pit after it is half built, 30 wood
is returned to your stockpile.

Constructing buildings

Constructing buildings costs wood or stone. You can build more than one of each
building. For example, you might build two Town Centers or three Barracks. To
display all of the buildings you can construct, you must click the arrow button to the
right of the building icons at the bottom of the game screen.

There are two types of buildings:

• Technology buildings, such as the Barracks, let you create new military units,

upgrade military units, and research technologies.

• Non-technology buildings, such as walls and Farms, provide a benefit to your

civilization but do not let you research new military units or technologies.

As you advance through the ages, the appearance of each building evolves and
new military units, upgrades, technologies, and buildings become available. Allied
civilizations cannot help each other construct buildings.

Researching Architecture increases the hit points and decreases the construction
time of buildings and walls.

For descriptions of the buildings you can construct, refer to the Units section of the
online Help.

To construct a building

1 Click a villager (or select a group). The more villagers assigned to a building,

the faster it is built.

2 Click the Build button.

3 Click the button of the building to build. For example, to build a House, click

the Build House button. To display more buildings, click the arrow button to
the right of the building icons.

32 Chapter 3: Building your civilization

4 Click a location on the map. The building is shown in red if you cannot build in

a particular location.

-or-

If you want to build more than one of the same building, press SHIFT, and then
click multiple locations on the map. To build multiple walls, click a location and
drag the pointer where you want to build walls.

Repairing buildings and boats

Damaged buildings and boats catch fire. They can be repaired to full strength by
villagers. Repairing buildings and boats requires resources. Destroyed buildings are
reduced to rubble and eventually disappear. Destroyed boats sink. You can repair
the buildings of allied civilizations. The cost of the repair is deducted from the
civilization that owns the building.

To repair a building or boat

1 Click a villager (or select a group of villagers). The more villagers assigned to a

building or boat, the faster it is repaired.

2 Right-click the building or boat to repair.

To repair a transport vessel

1 Click a villager (or select a group of villagers).

2 Click the Repair button, and then click the transport vessel to repair.

Surviving

Assyrian relief

carvings from 700

BC show skin

covered boats

being used to

transport

chariots across

the Euphrates

River.

33

Trade increased

in importance

after the first

towns appeared.

Within the town

the different

task specialists

had to trade the

results of their

work for the

things they

needed. The

increasing

importance of

task

specialization

required a more

sophisticated

arrangement of

bartering so the

residents could

trade the

results of their

labor for the

necessities and

luxuries they

desired.

Trading

Trading lets you exchange the food, wood, and stone in your stockpile for gold.
You trade with other civilizations by establishing trade routes to and from foreign
Docks. Trade Boats and Merchant Ships travel to foreign Docks with a cargo of
trade goods (20 food, wood, or stone), exchange the trade goods for gold, and
return to your Dock to deposit the gold. The farther you travel to the foreign Dock,
the more valuable your cargo and the more gold you receive. Trade vessels can
carry a maximum of 20 trade goods. If the stockpile of resources you are trading
drops to zero, the trade vessel becomes idle. Trading has no effect on the player
you are trading with. The resources you drop off and the gold you receive are not
added to or deducted from the other civilizations stockpile.

To trade with another civilization

1 Click a Trade Boat or Merchant Ship.

2 Click the button at the bottom of the game screen that corresponds to the

resource you want the vessel to carry (food, wood, or stone). The resource
you select is automatically deducted from your stockpile each time the vessel
returns.

3 Right-click the Dock to trade with.

To display a vessels cargo

➤ Click a Trade Boat or Merchant Ship. The cargo it carries is displayed in the

status box in the lower-left corner of the game screen.

To display the gold paid at a Dock

➤ Click the Dock. The amount of gold you receive for your trade goods is

displayed in the status box in the lower-left corner of the game screen (shown
as the amount of gold/cost).

34 Chapter 3: Building your civilization

Chapter 4

Chapter 4

Researching Technology

Researching Technology

About technology

In the span of time represented by Age of Empires (roughly 12,000 BC to 500
AD), humans advanced from being just one of the animals roaming the land (albeit
the most dangerous) to being the dominant species on earth. This ascendance
occurred because of human intelligence and the harnessing of technology by that
intelligence. A naked human with no tools or weapons was at a great disadvantage
in the post-Ice Age wilderness. But a group of humans, working together, well­armed and equipped (for the time), carrying in their heads the shared wisdom of
their ancestors passed down orally for generations, was a competitive force of
awesome power. Paleontologists believe, for example, that small bands of big
game hunters spread south from what is now Canada to the tip of South America
in about 1000 years, hunting to extinction 31 genera of big game herbivores
(mammoth, mastodon, giant beaver, giant sloth, horse, a variety of camels, and
others).

Technology was the underlying dynamic for the rise of civilization throughout the
period covered by Age of Empires. Those cultures that learned a key new
technology first often had an advantage over their neighbors. Technology was often
the key factor in survival, expansion, and longevity. Egypt and Mesopotamia grew
strong early, once they mastered irrigation. The Minoans established a monopoly
on sea trade and grew rich. The Greeks expanded on the basis of trade, mining,
and a culture that encouraged and rewarded original thought. The Hittites mastered
metalworking and fielded well-equipped armies. The Assyrians, surrounded by
enemies, forged a powerful and innovative army out of necessity.

New buildings, military units, and technologies become available as
you build technology buildings and advance through the ages.
The Technology Tree Foldout shows all of the technology
paths you can pursue in Age of Empires. The
technologies available to you depend on the
civilization you are playing. The technology
trees for each civilization are in the
Appendix and in the Docs folder on the
Age of Empires disc.

36 Chapter 4: Researching Technology

Advancing through the ages

Historians have divided the story of human development into a number of ages for
reference. Age of Empires covers roughly four periodsthe end of the old Stone
Age (or Paleolithic period), the Tool Age (or Neolithic period), the Bronze Age, and
the beginnings of the Iron Age. These periods are named after the predominant tool
and weapon material. Stone Age tools were large stone choppers and spear
points. Tool Age tools were small stone blades, called microliths, struck from stone
core. The small blades were fixed into hafts to make scythes, knives, and others
specialized tools. The Bronze Age was dominated by tools and weapons made of
bronze metal, an alloy usually of copper and tin. The Iron Age was dominated by
tools and weapons of iron.

Tools and other technologies were cumulative in nature. Cultures had to master the
preceding technology to proceed and advance. Newly rising cultures built on the
technologies of their predecessors. Even the Yamato culture, the last in Age of
Empires to develop historically, had to build on Tool Age and Bronze Age
technologies that developed farther in the West and spread gradually East.

The advance from one age to another was usually a slow process that required a
gradual but extensive conversion of an entire economy. New raw materials and new
fabrication techniques were required. New skills and workshops came into being.
The eventual cost in time and resources was enormous, but the new efficiencies
recovered those costs quickly.

Civilization

arose, not once,

but time and again

in different

places at

different times.

Civilizations rose

and fell, some

lasting much

longer than

others. There

were at least two

great dark ages

where civilization

essentially

disappeared from

most of the world

(1200 BC to 700

BC and 400 AD to

900 AD). The two

prerequisites for

civilization were

the human ability

to organize and

the production of

food in large

quantities. Large

amounts of food

made large

populations

possible, but only

if they could be

effectively

organized.

37

The invention of

writing took

place in

Mesopotamia just

before the start

of the Bronze

Age in 3000 BC.

The earliest

writing was

pictographic 

each picture

represented an

object.

Age of Empires spans 12,000 years of ancient history. This time period has been
subdivided into four significant ages:

• Stone Age  Characterized by pursuit of the required tools of survival: the

construction of shelter and the search for steadfast sources of food through
hunting, fishing, and foraging.

• Tool Age  Characterized by farming settlements, stable food supplies,

defense of territory, accelerated population growth, simple economy, and
emerging military.

• Bronze Age  Characterized by competition for valuable resources,

increasingly sophisticated technologies, metalworking, trade, colonization,
centralized government, institutionalized religion, highly organized military
systems, and conquest.

• Iron Age  Characterized by a dependence upon precious metals to drive

economies, empire building, expansion, construction of massive cities
supporting huge populations, sophisticated military organizations, siege tactics,
armor and weaponry, dominance of seaways with war galleys and triremes and
enormous construction projects including the Wonders of the Ancient World.

A game typically begins in the Stone Age and you strive to advance through the
ages to reach the Iron Age. As you advance through the ages, new buildings,
military units, and technologies become available. Advancing through the ages
costs resources and time. As a prerequisite for advancing to the next age, you
must have two different technology buildings from the current age.

To advance to the next age

1 You must have two different technology buildings from the current age.

• To advance from the Stone Age to the Tool Age, you must have a Town

Center and two different Stone Age technology buildings (Granary,
Storage Pit, Dock, or Barracks). For example, you might build a Granary
and Storage Pit.

38 Chapter 4: Researching Technology

• To advance from the Tool Age to the Bronze Age, you must have two

different Tool Age buildings (Market, Archery Range, or Stable). For
example, you might build a Market and Archery Range.

• To advance from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, you must have two

different Bronze Age buildings (Temple, Government Center, Siege
Workshop, or Academy). For example, you might build a Temple and Siege
Workshop.

2 Click the Town Center.

3 Click the Advance to Next Age button.

After you reach the next age, the technology buildings from that age are
available to be built. After building certain buildings, you can create new units,
upgrade existing units, research new technologies or build new buildings.

Researching technology

The Sumerians are credited with inventing both the wheel and writing around 3500
BC. The invention of writing, especially, was a gradual process. Both technologies
provided immediate and easily understood benefits that persist today. The wheel
made carts possible, greatly improving the efficiency of moving goods. The wheel
was also a prerequisite for the chariot and other engines of war. The pottery wheel
came into use at the same time as the transport wheel. Writing was so important
to the storage and communication of knowledge that it became a technology
research accelerator. After its appearance, the rate of technology advances
increased. The invention of both the wheel and writing contributed to the success
of Sumeria and other Mesopotamian civilizations.

In Age of Empires, new technologies can be researched as your civilization enters
each successive age. Within an age there are opportunities to research entirely
new concepts or upgrade ones that already exists. For example, Toolworking is a
new technology that can be researched in the Tool Age. In contrast, the Broad
Swordsman (Bronze Age), and Long Swordsman (Iron Age) are basically upgrades
of the same infantry unit.

In ancient times, those cultures that progressed in technology tended to persevere.
Those that did not fell by the wayside. The same correlation holds in Age of
Empires. To be successful you must advance to keep up with, or surpass, your
rivals economically and militarily.

For descriptions of the technologies you can research, see the Technologies
section of the online Help.

To research technology

1 Click a technology building on the game map. The technologies you can

research appear on the buttons at the bottom of the game screen.

39

Within towns, the

specialization of

tasks and the

prospect of profit

increased the

rate of

technological

improvement. The

expert had an

incentive to find

ways to be more

productive.

Greater

productivity

either made him

materially better

off or allowed

for greater

leisure time.

2 Click the button that corresponds to the technology you want to research. For

example, to research Toolworking from the Storage Pit, click the Research
Toolworking button. Researching technology takes time and costs
resources, but after you have researched a technology, your civilization
immediately begins reaping its benefit(s).

Upgrading military units,
boats, walls, and towers

As you advance through the ages, you can upgrade your military units, boats, walls,
and towers. When you upgrade, existing units of a particular type are replaced by
more powerful units. However, the Axeman, Bowman, and Scout are not replaced
when you upgrade to more powerful units.

To upgrade a military unit, boat, wall, or tower

1 To upgrade a military unit, click the Barracks, Archery Range, Stable, Temple,

Siege Workshop, or Academy. To upgrade a boat, click the Dock. To upgrade a
wall or tower, click the Granary.

2 Click the button at the bottom of the game screen that corresponds to the unit

you want to upgrade. For example, to upgrade to Heavy Cavalry (from the
Stable), click the Upgrade to Heavy Cavalry button. All existing units
(Cavalry, in this case) are upgraded to Heavy Cavalry and you can train new
Heavy Cavalry.

40 Chapter 4: Researching Technology

Chapter 5

Chapter 5

Engaging in combat

Engaging in combat

Royal burials

from Ur, dated

to 2600 BC,

revealed

remarkable

treasures

including bowls

of gold inscribed

with the princes

name, an

elaborate

helmet beaten

from a sheet of

gold, axes of

electrum and a

dagger of gold

(weapons for

decorative

purposes only),

and many more

bowls of gold,

silver, and

copper.

Engaging in combat

Military units and villagers can engage in combat on land. War ships can engage in
combat at sea. Military units automatically attack units within their sight unless you
order them to attack a different unit or stand ground. To win a game by military
conquest, your civilization (or team) must destroy all enemy villagers, military units,
war ships, and buildings. You do not need to destroy trade vessels, transport
vessels, fishing vessels, Artifacts, Ruins, or walls. You can pursue an allied victory
with other civilizations as explained in Allied victory in this chapter.

The military units in Age of Empires are easily understood for the most part, with
the exception of the mystical Priest. This unit represents the spiritual leaders of
your tribe who can heavily influence the beliefs of your people and of your enemies.
The leaders of a particularly powerful religion could exhort
their people to work and fight harder. A strong religion
could adversely affect the morale of a weaker culture.
When the Persian army approached Babylon around
600 BC, for example, the Babylonians
surrendered their weak king and culture to the
Persians, whom they perceived as more
highly blessed and
well-led. Heroes look
identical to other
military units but have
special attributes, as
shown in the status box in
the lower left corner of the
game screen.

Wounded villagers and military units
can be healed by a Priest as explained in
Healing villagers and military units in
this chapter. Enemy villagers, military
units, buildings, and boats can be
converted to your civilization by a
Priest, as explained in Converting
enemy units in this chapter.
Damaged buildings and boats can
be repaired by a villager as
explained in Villager tasks in
Chapter 3.

To order a military unit,
villager, or boat to attack

➤ Click a military unit, villager, or

boat (or select a group), and then
right-click the enemy villager,
military unit, or building to attack.

42 Chapter 5: Engaging in Combat

To order a military unit or boat to stand ground

1 Click a military unit or boat.

2 Click the Stand Ground button.

The military unit or boat remains in the location. It only attacks an enemy villager,
military unit, boat, building, or wall within its range. To clear the Stand Ground
order, move the unit.

To order a catapult unit to attack an area

The Stone Thrower, Catapult, Heavy Catapult, Catapult Trireme, and Juggernaught,
which cause area of effect damage, can fire at a general area instead of at a
specific target, such as a military unit or building.

1 Click a Stone Thrower, Catapult, Heavy Catapult, Catapult Trireme, or

Juggernaught.

2 Click the Attack Ground button, and then click a location on the map.

Diplomacy

Each civilization can choose its diplomatic stance toward other civilizations. Two
civilizations can take different stances toward each other. If a civilization is allied
with an enemy, the enemy civilization attacks, but the allied civilization does not.

Researching Writing lets allies share exploration.

To set your diplomatic stance toward other civilizations

1 Click the Diplomacy button on the menu bar.

2 Select your diplomatic stance toward each of the other players:

• Ally  Military units do not attack other players buildings, villagers,

military units, or boats.

• Neutral  Military units attack all buildings and military units (but not

villagers) who enter their sight.

• Enemy  Military units (except Scouts) attack all buildings, military units,

and villagers who enter their sight.

Important roles

of early

governments were

to store food

surpluses and

protect them from

outsiders. In the

early cultures of

the arid Middle

East,

governments

built and

maintained the

irrigation

systems that

made the farms

possible. These

were large and

complex systems

that required

planning and

organization on

an unprecedented

scale.

Allied victory

In allied victory, two or more civilizations can work together to win (or lose) as a
team. Any allied civilization who achieves the victory condition(s) wins the game for
all allies.

To pursue an allied victory, each player must set their diplomatic stance toward the

other civilizations as Ally, and select the Allied Victory option. If you choose to

play on a team when you start a single player or multiplayer game, the

game automatically sets these options for you.

43

When the standard victory condition is control of all Artifacts or Ruins, a team wins
an allied victory regardless of which team member owns the Ruin or Artifacts. For
example, if player 1 controls two Artifacts and player 2 controls three Artifacts, the
team wins an allied victory. For more information about winning the different types
of allied victory, see Winning a game in Chapter 1.

Researching Writing lets allies share exploration.

To pursue an allied victory

1 Click the Diplomacy button on the menu bar.

2 Set your diplomatic stance to Ally for each

civilization on your team. All players who want to
pursue an allied victory must do this.

3 Click Allied Victory. All players who want to

pursue an allied victory must do this.

Tribute

The central governments of ancient empires were supported by tribute paid to the
emperor or king by province governors and vassal states on their borders. Vassal
states in particular paid tribute in order to retain some autonomy from the imperial
sphere but still benefit from the protection of a bigger neighbor. The Persian kings,
for example, collected camels, wheat, horses, gold, carpets, sheep, cattle,
weapons, copper, pottery, and other goods from the corners of their empire. This
tribute supported the king and government and supplied the armies that maintained
peace within and outside the empire. The development of coinage facilitated the
process of tribute because it was much easier to transport money than perishable
and more bulky items.

In Age of Empires, it is possible to send tribute in the form of food, wood, stone, or
gold to any other player in the game. This can be done to buy off an impending
attack or to encourage an attack against another player. Tribute can also be offered
to help an ally or other player accumulate the resources needed to advance to the
next age or build a Wonder.

A civilization can tribute food, wood, stone, and gold to another civilization at any
time. There is a 25 percent fee to pay tribute. For example, if you tribute 100 gold,
125 gold is deducted from your stockpile (100 gold is deposited in the other
players stockpile, and 25 gold is paid as a fee). Researching Coinage eliminates
this fee.

To pay tribute

1 Click the Diplomacy button on the menu bar.

2 Click the resource(s) to tribute to a civilization (food, wood, stone, or gold).

Each time you click the button, the civilization receives 100 of the item. If you
have less than 100 of an item in your stockpile, the civilization receives the
amount you have minus the 25 percent fee. The button shows the amount of

44 Chapter 5: Engaging in Combat

the tribute. Your stockpile of each item (minus the tribute) is shown at the top
of the column.

3 To pay the tribute, click OK. The resources are deducted from your stockpile.

Or, if you choose not to pay tribute, click Clear Tributes.

Healing villagers
and military units

Priests can heal the hit points of wounded villagers and military units from their
own and allied civilizations. A Priest must be able to stand adjacent to a unit in
order to heal it. Once a Priest has healed a unit, it continues to automatically heal
any nearby villagers and military units. Unlike conversions, there is no rejuvenation
period between one healing and the next. Priests cannot heal buildings or boats.

To heal a villager or military unit

1 Click a Priest.

2 Right-click the villager or military unit to heal.

-or-

Click the Heal button, and then
click the villager or military unit to
heal.

Converting
enemy units

Priests can convert enemy villagers, military
units, boats, and most buildings to their
civilization. After being ordered, Priests
attempt to convert a unit as soon as it is
within their range. Researching Afterlife
increases the range of Priests for converting
military units.

The increasing

complexity of

urban life was

mirrored in many

cultures by an

increasingly

complex religion.

Some cultures

worshipped a host

of gods, each

responsible for

some part of the

natural world.

Within such a

host of gods, it

was common for a

hierarchy to exist

with one supreme

god over all.

Other cultures

rejected the

polytheism of

multiple gods,

believing instead

that one god or

spirit controlled

the universe.

Researching Monotheism lets Priests convert buildings
and enemy Priests. To convert buildings, the Priest must move adjacent to the
building. If you convert a building you have not yet constructed, you cannot use the
converted building until you construct the building yourself. For example, if you
convert a Barracks, you cannot train military units there unless you have already
constructed your own Barracks.

Boats are twice as resistant to conversion as other units. Chariots are also
resistant to conversion. Researching Astrology lets Priests convert units more
quickly.

Priests must rejuvenate their strength after attempting a conversion. The
rejuvenation percentage is shown in the status box in the lower-left corner of the
game screen. Researching Fanaticism lets Priests rejuvenate more quickly.

45

By 3500 BC, the

Sumerians had

achieved the

first full

civilization.

Their major city

was Ur, situated

on a lagoon of

the Persian Gulf

where it

supplemented its

farming by

operating as a

trading post for

both sea and

river traffic.

Priests do not automatically convert nearby units, unless they are attacked. When
the Priest has converted a unit, he stands idle until given another command. If a
Priest converts a transport vessel carrying units, the ship is converted but its cargo
is not. Converted units maintain their attributes (attack, range, etc.) at conversion;
they cannot be upgraded. Technologies you research do not apply to converted
units, except Monotheism, Astrology, Fanaticism, Ballistics, and Siegecraft. Priests
cannot convert Town Centers, Wonders, or allied villagers, military units, or
buildings.

To convert enemy villagers, military units, and boats

1 Click a Priest.

2 Right-click the enemy villager, military unit, building, or boat to convert.

-or-

Click the Convert button, and then click the enemy villager, military unit,
building, or boat to convert.

Unit attributes

Villagers, military units, boats, and buildings can have the following attributes. For
information about the specific attributes of each unit, refer to the Technology Tree
Foldout or the Units section of the online Help.

Attack  How much damage a unit inflicts.

Armor  Reduces the amount of damage a unit suffers in

hand-to-hand combat. For example, +5 armor reduces damage by 5.

Piercing Armor  Reduces the amount of damage a unit suffers
from missile weapons (Archery Range units, towers, Scout Ship,

War Galley, Trireme).

Range  How far a missile weapon (Archery Range units, towers,
Scout Ship, War Galley, Trireme) can fire.

Hit points  How much damage a unit can suffer before it dies. To display a units
hit points, click the unit. The colored bar that appears above a unit shows its
general health (green = healthy, red = wounded). The units hit points are shown in
the status box in the lower-left corner of the game screen (current hit points/
maximum hit points). Priests can heal wounded units, as explained in Healing
villagers and military units in this chapter.

Fire rate  How many seconds it takes a unit to attack again.

Speed  How fast a unit moves.

46 Chapter 5: Engaging in Combat

Chapter 6

Chapter 6

Creating and customizing

Creating and customizing

scenarios and campaigns

scenarios and campaigns

Using the scenario builder

The scenario builder lets you create randomly generated or custom maps for up to
eight players. You can use the scenario builder to:

• Customize the map  Create randomly generated or custom maps.

• Customize the terrain  Place resources, elevation, cliffs, forests, and

water.

• Customize the players  Choose the starting age, starting stockpiles,

civilization, starting technology, and computer personality for each player.

• Customize the units  Place buildings, villagers, military units, and boats for

each player, as well as world (Gaia) objects such as trees, resources, Artifacts,
Discoveries, Ruins, and terrain accents such as bones, grass clumps, etc.

• Customize diplomacy  Choose the diplomatic stance of players (ally,

neutral, or enemy) and whether any players pursue allied victory.

• Customize the global victory conditions  Choose one or more victory

conditions that all players must achieve.

• Customize the individual victory conditions  Choose unique victory

conditions for each player.

• Customize the options  Enable the full tech tree or disable technology for

each player.

• Customize the messages  Write scenario instructions, hints, a victory

message, a loss message, and historical information.

• Customize the cinematics  Choose the cinematics that play at the

beginning and end of the scenario.

48 Chapter 6: Customizing Scenarios and Campaigns

To create or edit a scenario

1 On the Age of Empires menu, click Scenario Builder.

2 To create a scenario, click Create Scenario.

To edit a scenario, click Edit Scenario, and then select the scenario to edit.

3 Customize the scenario map, terrain, players, units, diplomacy, victory

conditions, options, messages, and cinematics as explained in the following
sections.

4 To begin playing your customized scenario, click Menu, and then click Test.

This option lets you play through the scenario you have created or edited
without leaving the scenario builder. To return to the scenario builder after
testing your scenario, click Menu, and then click Quit Game.

To save the scenario, click Menu, and then click Save or Save As.

Customizing the map

You can create randomly generated or custom maps.

To customize the map

1 In the scenario builder, click Map.

2 Select the Map:

• Blank Map displays the default terrain, with no resources (food, wood,

stone, or gold). If you select Blank Map, select the Default Terrain
(the map background).

• Random Map displays a random distribution of land, water, and

resources. If you select Random Map, select the Map Type (the
distribution of water and land).

• Seed Map displays a random distribution of land, water, and resources

based on the seed (number) you type. For example, if you type 532, and
select the same number of players, map size, and map type, the same
map always appears. If you select Seed Map, select the Map Type (the
distribution of water and land) and type the Seed number. You can type
any five-digit number up to 99999.

3 Select the Map Size. The larger the map, the longer the game.

4 Click Generate Map to display the map.

The earliest

alphabetic system

appeared in the

city of Ugarit in

modern Syria

around 1350 BC.

Ugarit was an

important trading

center between

Mesopotamia,

Palestine,

Anatolia, and the

ports on the

Levant leading to

Greece and Egypt.

The best known

script from this

time is called

Ugaritic, which

has a 32 letter

alphabet and is

probably the

ancestor of all

later alphabetic

scripts.

Customizing terrain

You can fine-tune the map terrain, including elevation and cliffs.

To customize the terrain

1 In the scenario builder, click Terrain.

2 Select the Brush Type:

• Map lets you paint background terrain (grass, forest, water, etc.). If you

select Map, select the Terrain to paint and the Brush Size (area to
paint).

49

• Elevation lets you paint hills. If you select Elevation, select the

elevation to paint and the Brush Size (area to paint). The larger the
elevation number, the higher the elevation. Water can only be painted on
flat terrain.

• Cliffs lets you paint cliffs. Cliffs should only be placed on flat terrain.

Placing cliffs on different elevations creates gaps between the cliffs that
villagers and military units may have difficulty moving through. If you place
cliffs on different elevations, level the terrain after you have placed the
cliffs.

3 To paint a single area of terrain or elevation, click a location on the map. To

paint cliffs or a large area of terrain or elevation, drag the mouse. To delete
cliffs, right-click and drag the mouse over existing cliffs.

In the space of

5000 years, from

8000 BC to 3000

BC, the earliest

settled villages

grew into full

civilizations in

the Middle East,

Anatolia, Iran,

India and

Pakistan, and

China. Among the

important steps

in the movement

toward

civilization were

irrigation, the

city-state,

trade,

metalworking,

and writing.

Customizing the players

You can choose the number of players, starting age, starting stockpiles,
civilization, starting technology, and computer personality for each player.

To customize the players

1 In the scenario builder, click Players.

2 Select the Number of Players.

3 Select the player number to customize.

4 Select the players Starting Age.

The player starts the game at the beginning of the selected age, with all
technology research in the previous age(s) completed. For example, if the
starting age is Bronze Age, all Stone Age and Tool Age technologies are
complete. If the starting age is Post-Iron Age, the player starts at the end of
the Iron Age, with all Stone, Tool, Bronze, and Iron Age research complete.

5 Type the amount of Food, Stone, Wood, and Gold the player has at the

beginning of the game.

6 If you want to replace the civilization name with a unique name, type a Tribe

Name. The tribe name replaces the civilization name only when the scenario is
played as part of a campaign.

7 Select the Player Type. If you select Computer, the position is played by

the computer. If you select Either, the position can be played by a human or
by the computer (if it is not filled by a human).

8 Select the players Civilization. Each civilization has special skills and can

research different technologies, as explained in Choosing a civilization in
Chapter 1. More than one player can choose the same civilization.

9 Select the City Plan  Where on the map the computer constructs each

building. To let the computer design its own city plan, select Default.
Advanced players can customize the city plans by using a text editor to edit
the .cty files in the Data folder where Age of Empires is installed. The city plan
(.cty file) you want to include in your scenario must be located in the Data
folder where Age of Empires is installed.

50 Chapter 6: Customizing Scenarios and Campaigns

10 Select the Strategy  Which buildings, military units, boats, and technologies

the computer builds. You must select a strategy for each player.

The name of the strategies indicates the primary unit the computer player uses
to attack and the age in which the attack occurs. For example, Archers Bronze
indicates that the computer player attacks with archers in the Bronze Age. For
more information about the strategies, refer to the Strattyp.doc file in the Docs
folder on the Age of Empires disc.

Advanced players can customize the strategy by using a text editor to edit the
.ai files in the Data folder where Age of Empires is installed. The content of the
.ai files is explained in the Stratsmp.doc file in the Docs folder on the Age of
Empires disc. The strategy (.ai file) you want to include in your scenario must
be located in the Data folder where Age of Empires is installed.

11 Select the Personality of the computer player. For most situations, you can

choose Aggressive or Passive.

Advanced players can customize the personality files by using a text editor to
edit the .per files in the Data folder where Age of Empires is installed. The
content of the .per files is explained in the Persnlty.doc file in the Docs folder
on the Age of Empires disc. The personality (.per file) you want to include in
your scenario must be located in the Data folder where Age of Empires is
installed.

51

Customizing the units

You can place buildings, villagers, military units, and boats for each player, as well
as world (Gaia) objects such as trees, resources, Artifacts, Discoveries, Ruins,
and terrain accents such as bones, grass clumps, etc.

If you do not place any units on the map for a particular
player, a Town Center and three villagers appear in a
random location on the map at the beginning of the
game each time you play the scenario.

To customize units

1 In the scenario builder, click Units.

2 To place buildings, villagers, military units, and

boats for a particular player, select or type the
player number.

To place world objects that are not associated with
a particular player, click Gaia or press 0.

3 To place an item on the map, click Place, click an item in the list box, and then

click a location on the map. The item appears in red if you are not allowed to
place it in a location, such as on top of another item.

To delete an item on the map, click Delete, and then click the item to delete.

To move an item on the map, click Move, click the item to move, and then
drag it to a new location.

To rotate a villager, military unit, or boat, click Rotate, and then click the unit
to rotate. Right-click to rotate in the opposite direction. You cannot rotate
buildings or other immobile objects.

To select all objects so you can see how much space they occupy, press
CTRL+A.

52 Chapter 6: Customizing Scenarios and Campaigns

Customizing diplomacy

You can determine the diplomatic stance of players (ally, neutral, or enemy) and
choose whether any players pursue allied victory.

To customize diplomacy

1 In the scenario builder, click Diplomacy.

2 Select the player to customize.

3 Select the players diplomatic stance toward each of the other players:

• Ally  Military units do not attack other players buildings, villagers,

military units, or boats.

• Neutral  Military units

attack all buildings and
military units (but not
villagers) who enter their
sight.

• Enemy  Military units

(except Scouts) attack all
buildings, military units, and
villagers who enter their
sight.

4 Select whether any players

pursue an allied victory. For allied
victory, any player who achieves
the victory condition wins the
game for all mutually allied
players.

The demands

of business

and trade

eventually

led to the

development of

money, which

served as a

medium of

exchange, a

storehouse of

value, and a

standard of

value. Silver

rings or bars

are thought to

have been used

as money in

ancient Iraq

before 2000 BC.

The first coins

were made of

electrum, a

naturally

occurring and

easily

malleable alloy

of gold and

silver.

53

Iron was known

from the third

millennium BC,

but it was not

mastered until

many years

later. Some of

the earliest

iron artifacts

were made from

meteoric iron.

Ancient trading

records show

that iron was

more valuable

than silver

during much of

the second

millennium.

Customizing the global
victory conditions

Global victory conditions apply to all players. A scenario can have more than one
global victory condition, in which case you must specify whether players must
achieve one or all of the global victory conditions to win the game. For allied
victory, all allies must work as a team to achieve their global victory condition(s).

In addition to global victory conditions, you can also assign individual victory
conditions to each player, as explained in the following section. The interaction
between global and individual victory conditions is also explained in that section.

To customize the global victory conditions

1 In the scenario builder, click Global Victory.

2 Click the victory condition(s) that players must achieve to win the game.

• Standard  The game is won by Conquest, Wonders, Artifacts, or Ruins

as explained in Winning a game in Chapter 1.

• Conquest  The first civilization (or team) to destroy all opponents

villagers, military units, boats, and buildings wins the game. You do not
need to destroy trade vessels, transport vessels, fishing vessels,
Artifacts, Ruins, or walls.

• Score  The game is won by the first civilization (or team) to achieve the

specified score. Wonders, Artifacts, and Ruins add points to your score as
explained in Winning a game in Chapter 1.

• Time Limit  The game is won by the civilization (or team) to achieve the

highest score within the specified time.

54 Chapter 6: Customizing Scenarios and Campaigns

• Custom  Choose your own victory condition(s):

Conquest The first civilization (or team) to destroy all opponents

villagers, military units, boats, and buildings wins the game. You do not
need to destroy trade vessels, transport vessels, fishing vessels,
Artifacts, Ruins, or walls.

Exploration  The first civilization (or team) to explore the specified
percentage of the map wins the game. For allied victory only one of the
allies must explore the specified percentage of the map.

Ruins  The first civilization (or team) to control the designated number of
Ruins wins the game. The game ends immediately. There is no countdown
clock. An allied victory is achieved when the Ruins are owned by any of
the allies.

Artifacts  The first civilization (or team) to control the designated
number of Artifacts wins the game. The game ends immediately. There is
no countdown clock. An allied victory is achieved when the Artifacts are
owned by any of the allies.

Discoveries  The first civilization (or team) to locate the specified
number of Discoveries wins the game. Discoveries are natural sites of
significance represented by a white horse etched into the ground.
Discoveries only appear in a scenario when they are a possible victory
condition. To locate the Discovery, move a unit near it. A colored flag
indicates which civilizations have located the Discovery. More than one
civilization can locate a Discovery. For allied victory, all allies must locate
all Discoveries.

3 To allow players to achieve any one of the victory conditions you selected,

click Any One. To require players to achieve all of the victory conditions you
selected, click All.

55

The earliest use

of metal yet

known comes

from southern

Turkey, north of

Syria. Hammered

copper objects

found here date

to 7000 BC.

Customizing the individual
victory conditions

Individual victory conditions let you create highly customized scenarios with up to
twelve unique victory conditions for each player. Individual victory conditions are
not required for a scenario. If used, they can be assigned in addition to or instead
of global victory conditions (explained in the previous section). If a scenario
contains individual victory conditions, players cannot change the victory condition in
the settings screen that appears before starting a scenario.

In addition to the possibility of a scenario having both individual and global victory
conditions, a player can be allied with other players who have the same or different
victory conditions. In these cases, the game is won as follows:

• Individual victory conditions  If a scenario includes only individual

victory conditions (no global victory conditions), players must achieve all of
their individual victory conditions to win the game. For example, if a player has
three individual victory conditions, he must achieve all three of them to win the
game. For allied victory, all allies must achieve their individual victory
condition(s) to win the game.

• Individual and global victory conditions  If a scenario contains both

individual victory conditions and global victory conditions, players can achieve
their individual victory condition(s) OR the global victory condition(s) to win the
game. For allied victory, allies can achieve the global victory condition(s) OR all
allies can achieve all of their individual victory condition(s) to win the game.

To customize the individual victory conditions

1 In the scenario builder, click Individual Victory.

2 Select the player to customize.

3 Click the button of the Victory Condition to set. For example, to set the

first victory condition, click button 1. You can assign one victory condition to
each button (up to 12 victory conditions to each player).

4 Select the victory condition:

• None

Sets no individual victory conditions.

• Bring Object to Object

To specify the object to bring, click Set Object, and then click a mobile
unit (military unit, Artifact, etc.) on the map. To specify the destination,
click Set Destination, and then click a unit (building, Ruins, etc.) on the
map.

• Bring Object to Area

To specify the object to bring, click Set Object, and then click a mobile
unit (military unit, Artifact, etc.) on the map. To specify the destination,
click Set Destination, and then click an area on the map or click and
drag to draw an area box. To display the area, click Go to Destination.
To indicate which area players must bring the object to, you can place

56 Chapter 6: Customizing Scenarios and Campaigns

flags or other objects there (as explained in Using the scenario builder
(Customizing units) in this chapter.

• Create # of Objects

To specify the object to create, select a unit from the list box. To specify
the number of units to create, type a number in the Quantity box.

• Create Objects in Area

To specify the object to create, select a unit from the list box. To specify
the number of units to create, type a number in the Quantity box. To
specify the destination, click Set Destination, and then click an area on
the map or click and drag to draw an area box. To display the area, click
Go to Destination. To indicate which area players must create an
object in, you can place flags or other objects there (as explained in
Using the scenario builder (Customizing units) in this chapter.

• Destroy # of Objects

To specify the object to destroy, select a unit from the list box. To
specify the number of units to destroy, type a number in the Quantity
box. To select whose units to destroy, select Which Player.

• Destroy Specific Object

To specify the object to destroy, click Set Object, and then click an
object on the map.

• Destroy All Objects

To specify the object to destroy, select a unit from the list box. To
specify whose unit to destroy, select Which Player.

• Destroy Player

Select Which Player to destroy.

• Capture an Object

To specify the object to capture, click Set Object, and then click an
object on the map. You capture an object by ordering a Priest to
convert it.

• Gold Stockpile

To specify the amount of gold to gather, type a number in the Quantity
box.

• Food Stockpile

To specify the amount of food to gather, type a number in the Quantity
box.

• Wood Stockpile

To specify the amount of wood to gather, type a number in the Quantity
box.

• Stone Stockpile

To specify the amount of stone to gather, type a number in the Quantity
box.

57

• Population

To specify the population, type a number in the Quantity box. Population
includes all units (villagers, military units, and boats).

• Age

Click the age to research. For example, Bronze Age indicates that you
must advance to the Bronze Age.

• Exploration

To specify the percentage of the map to explore, type a number in the
Quantity box.

• Technologies

Select the technology to achieve.

• Other Attributes

Select the attribute to achieve:

Razings  Specify the number of enemy buildings that must be
destroyed.

Conversions  Specify the number of villagers, military units, buildings,
or boats that must be converted by Priests.

Kill Ratio  Specify the number of villagers, military units, and boats that
must be killed compared to those that are lost. For example, a Kill Ratio
of 10 indicates that a player must have 10 more kills than losses.

Wonders  Specify the number of Wonders that must be built and held.

Military Population  Specify the number of military units that must be

created.

Technologies  Specify the number of technology nodes that must be
researched.

Villager Population  Specify the number of villagers that must be
created.

Kills  Specify the number of villagers, military units, or boats that must
be killed (buildings are not included).

58 Chapter 6: Customizing Scenarios and Campaigns

5 Buttons that have

been assigned a
victory condition
display an asterisk.
To view, edit, or
delete an assigned
victory condition, click
the numbered button.
For example, to edit the
victory condition
assigned to button 2, click
2 and then select a
different victory condition or
None to delete the victory
condition.

Customizing the options

You can determine whether the full technology tree is used.

To customize the options

1 In the scenario builder, click Options.

2 To allow all civilizations to research all technologies in the game and to remove

the special attributes usually associated with each civilization, click Full Tech
Tree.

3To Disable Technology for a particular player, select the player, and then

click the technology buildings or ages to disable.

It is not clear if

writing was

invented in one

place and spread

from there, or if

it was invented

nearly

simultaneously in

several places. It

appears that

writing was

invented to keep

accounts in trade

and for the early

city-states.

Customizing the messages

You can customize the scenario instructions, hints, victory message, loss
message, and historical description.

To customize the message

1 In the scenario builder, click Messages.

2 Click the type of message to create/edit:

• Scenario Instructions  Describes what you must do to win the

game. Displayed before the scenario begins. If the scenario includes
global victory conditions or individual victory conditions, you must
provide scenario instructions so the players know which victory
condition(s) to achieve. For more information, see Customizing the
global victory conditions and Customizing the individual victory
conditions in this chapter.

• Hints  Provides information about how to win the game. Displayed

before the scenario begins. To display the Hints, click the Hints button at
the bottom of the Scenario Instructions screen. Hints are not required for
a scenario.

59

• Victory  Displayed for the winner(s) of the scenario. A victory

message is not required for a scenario.

• Loss  Displayed for the loser(s) of the scenario. A loss message is

not required for a scenario.

• History  Provides historical background information about the

scenario. Displayed before the scenario begins. To display the History
text, click the History button at the bottom of the Scenario
Instructions screen. History text is not required for a scenario.

To display the scenario instructions, hints, and history while you are playing the
game, click the Menu button on the menu bar, and then click Scenario
Instructions.

3 Type the message text in the box. Right-click to copy, cut, paste, etc.

60

Customizing the cinematics

You can choose the cinematics that play at the beginning and end of a scenario.
The cinematics (.avi files) you want to include in your campaign must be in .avi
format and located in the Avi folder where Age of Empires is installed.

To customize the cinematics

1 In the scenario builder, click Cinematics.

2 Select the cinematic to customize:

• Pre-Game Cinematic  Plays before a scenario begins.

• Victory Cinematic  Plays for the winner(s) of the scenario.

• Loss Cinematic  Plays for the loser(s) of the scenario.

• Scenario Instruction Map  Type the filename of the map bitmap that

should appear when the player starts

the scenario. The maps (.bmp files)

you want to include in your

campaign must be located in the

folder that contains the file

Empires.exe. You can create your

own map by editing (and saving

with a new name) the

Mapdefault.bmp file located in

the folder that contains

Empires.exe. You must not

change the color palette

provided with this file.

61

Using the campaign editor

The campaign editor lets you create your own campaigns by combining scenarios
into a custom campaign that you can distribute to other players.

Before you can create a campaign, you must have the following files:

• The scenarios (.scn files) you want to include in your campaign must be

located in the Scenario folder where Age of Empires is installed. For
information about creating custom scenarios to include in your campaigns, see
Using the scenario builder in this chapter.

• (optional) The maps (.bmp files) you want to include in your campaign must be

located in the folder that contains the Empires.exe file. For information about
creating custom maps, see Using the scenario builder (Customizing the
cinematics) in this chapter.

• (optional) The cinematics (.avi files) you want to include in your campaign must

be located in the Avi folder where Age of Empires is installed. For information
about including custom cinematics, see Using the scenario builder
(Customizing the cinematics) in this chapter.

• The strategy (.ai files) you want to include in your campaign must be located in

the Data folder where Age of Empires is installed. For information about
creating custom strategy files, see Using the scenario builder (Customizing
the players) in this chapter.

• The personality (.per files) you want to include in your campaign must be

located in the Data folder where Age of Empires is installed. For information
about creating custom personality files, see Using the scenario builder
(Customizing the players) in this chapter.

To use the campaign editor

1 On the Age of Empires menu, click Scenario Builder.

2 Click Campaign Editor.

3 In the Campaign Filename list, click the name of the file to edit, or type the

name of the campaign to create.

4 To add a scenario to the campaign, select the name of a scenario in the

Scenarios list, and then click Add. The scenario appears in the Campaign
Scenarios list. The scenarios will be played in the order that they appear in

the list.

To remove a scenario from the campaign, select the name of the scenario in
the Campaign Scenarios list, and then click Remove.

5 To save the changes to the campaign, click Save.

The campaign editor creates a campaign (.cpn) file located in the Campaign folder
where Age of Empires is installed. To distribute the campaign to other players, you
must provide them with the campaign (.cpn) file you created as well as the
cinematics (.avi) files (if any) for each scenario in the campaign.

If you edit a scenario within an existing campaign, you must remove the previous
version of the scenario and add the updated scenario to the campaign.

62 Chapter 6: Customizing Scenarios and Campaigns

Chapter 7

Chapter 7

Ancient Cultures

Ancient Cultures

Assyrian culture (1800 to 600 BC)

Lord Byron began his poem The
Destruction of Sennacherib with The
Assyrian came down like the wolf on
the fold. At the height of their power,
the Assyrians were very much like a
wolf among sheep, although their
reputation is enhanced by several
references to them in the Old
Testament and by the extensive battle
scenes that were found on their ruins.

5000BC 4000BC 3000BC 2000BC 1000BC 0AD 800AD

Sumerian

Egyptian
shang

Greek
Hittite
Babylonian

Tool Age Bronze Age Iron Age

Minoan

Assyrian
Phoenician

Ancient Choson

Persian

llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll

Yamato

For a period they rose to the challenge
of being surrounded by enemies and became the most powerful military force in the known world.
Their legendary barbarity and fierceness was a deliberate policy intended to foster the submission
of enemies and minimize the threat of revolt by vassals.

Location

Assyria was located in northern Mesopotamia (modern
Iraq) along the Tigris River. It was settled after Sumer to
the south but was dominated by the Sumerians both
culturally and politically during its early history.

Capital

The capital of Assyria was Ashur for most of its
existence, but moved to other sites when kings built new
palaces. Other important cities and capitals in the
Assyrian homeland were Nineveh, Arbela, Khorsabad,
and Nimrud.

Rise to power

Around 2000 BC Assyria was invaded by Semitic barbarians called the Amorites. By 1800 BC an
Amorite king of the Assyrians had established control over most of northern Mesopotamia. Their
power was short-lived in this period, however, due first to the rise of Babylonia under Hammurabi
and then the rise of the Mitanni in modern Syria.

The period 1363 to 1000 BC was the Middle Assyrian Empire. Several strong kings first
reasserted Assyrian independence and then began encroaching on neighboring empires. The
Assyrians avoided destruction during the catastrophe of 1200 BC, perhaps because they were
already embracing the new military tactics and weapons that the older kingdoms were not. In the
political vacuum of the ancient dark age, the Assyrians prospered. By 1076 BC Tiglathpileser I had
reached the Mediterranean to the west.

The New Assyrian Empire, 1000 to 600 BC, was the peak of their conquests. Their empire
stretched from the head of the Persian Gulf, around the Fertile Crescent through Damascus,
Phoenicia, Palestine, and into Egypt as far south as Thebes. Their northwestern border was the

64 Chapter 7: Assyrian culture

Taurus Mountains of modern Turkey. Other than the vestiges of what had once been the Minoan
(Crete), Mycenean (Greece), and Hittite (Turkey) cultures, all areas of pre-catastrophe civilization
in the West were ruled by Assyria.

Economy

The Assyrian economy was based on agriculture and herding, but the Assyrians also benefited by
being situated astride some important trade routes. They are not remembered as traders in their
own right, perhaps only as tax collectors on traders passing through. During the New Empire
period, they profited from the taxes and tribute they collected from their various provinces and
vassal states, including even Egypt for a few years.

Religion and culture

The Assyrian religion was heavily influenced by that of its Mesopotamian predecessors, mainly
Sumeria. The chief god of the Assyrians was Ashur, from whom both their culture and capital take
their names. Their temples were large ziggurats built of mud bricks, like their neighbors to the
south.

The principal activity of the rich was hunting from chariots, appropriate for such a war-like culture.
Despite their fearsome reputation, the Assyrians embraced civilization. They wrote using
cuneiform and decorated their cities liberally with reliefs, painted stonework, and sculpture.

Government

The king was the head administrator of government,
supported by local provincial governors. The palace
was the site of government. Advisors consulted the
omens before important decisions were made.

Provinces and vassal cities were required to pay
taxes and tribute in the form of food, goods, gold,
labor, military supplies, and soldiers for the army. An
extensive network of roads and grain depots were
built during the New Empire to speed
communication and armies moving to trouble spots.

Architecture

The Assyrians built on a large and lavish scale,
using mostly mud bricks, but also stone that was
more readily available than it was farther south.
Several New Empire kings built extensive palaces
and decorated them with the booty of war and the
tribute of vassal states. Palaces were also
decorated with painted stone reliefs, extensive
gardens, and man-made streams. A common
decorative fixture was the
hybrid creature, part bull and part man.

lamassu

—a winged

Lamassu-a, a human-headed winged
lion, stood guard at the gates of the
Palace of Assurnasirpal II, c. 859 BC.

65

Military

The first Assyrian armies were peasant spearmen. Following a series of military reforms around
800 BC, however, they employed a standing army of conscripts and professionals. This army was
better armed, armored, and supplied than most of its enemies, giving it important advantages. The
New Empire armies benefited from cheap iron used for improved swords and armor.

The Assyrians were among the first to adopt the concept of the integrated army made up of an
infantry core for shock, supported by light missile troops and a mobile wing of chariots, camelry,
and cavalry. The army was capable of fighting on the plains where chariots and then cavalry were
critical, as well as in rough terrain where horses and chariots had little use. They campaigned
regularly to the north and east against barbarians that posed a threat. The elite of the army for
many years were the charioteers, followed by the cavalry when chariots became obsolete.

The Assyrians were accomplished at the art of capturing walled cities. Their historical records
recount numerous city assaults and the brutality that followed. Cities that did not submit were
often completely destroyed. Inhabitants were either killed or sent to another corner of the empire
as slaves.

Decline and fall

The brutal policies of subjugation and exorbitant demands for tribute and taxes made the
Assyrians unpopular masters. Despite the ferocity of their reprisals, vassal states continually
revolted given an opportunity. Weaker kings were unable to hold the empire together in the face of
internal and external pressure. In 612 BC the capital at Nineveh fell to a coalition of Babylonians
and Medes. The Babylonians were in revolt (Babylon had been sacked in 648 BC) and the Medes
(from modern western Iran) were seeking retribution for past Assyrian invasions of their lands.

The last Assyrian army was defeated soon thereafter by the same coalition, and the Assyrians as
a separate culture disappeared from the world’s stage.

Legacy

The Assyrians are remembered from their boastful inscriptions and biblical references as ferocious
warriors. Whether they were significantly more brutal than was normal for the time is unclear.

For several centuries, however, they were the greatest military power in the civilized world. Their
armies were innovative and they appear to have been among the first to use large bodies of
cavalry effectively. They certainly influenced the Persian armies that followed them.

They are not remembered for any significant advances in technology, philosophy, the arts, or
science. Their cities have been piles of rubble for thousands of years now and have not given up
fabulous treasures that can compare with those of Egypt and Greece.

66 Chapter 7: Assyrian culture

Babylonian culture (1900 to 539 BC)

5000BC 4000BC 3000BC 2000BC 1000BC 0AD 800AD

Sumerian

Egyptian
shang

Greek
Hittite
Babylonian

Tool Age Bronze Age Iron Age

Minoan

Assyrian
Phoenician

Ancient Choson

Persian

llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll

Yamato

The Mesopotamian city-state of
Babylon twice expanded to become
an important world empire before
being absorbed by Persia. Its two
great expansions were sufficiently
remarkable to earn it a place in history
beside the two other great
Mesopotamian cultures, the
Sumerians and Assyrians. Between
its Old and New Empire periods,
Babylonia devolved back into a small

but rich city-state that was captured occasionally by its neighbors.

The predominate inhabitants of Babylon changed several times over its existence, although the
culture remained relatively constant and distinct. The Amorites, the Kassites, and the Chaldeans
were all Babylonians at least once.

Location

The Babylonians took their name from their capital and
only major city, Babylon, located on the Euphrates River
west of Sumeria and south of Assyria. It was well­placed on the river for agriculture and for trade, but had
no natural defenses. A strong leader and strong army
were needed to defend it. Determined attackers were
able to sack the city on numerous occasions during its
history when such a leader or army was not available.

Rise to power

Babylonia was founded as a kingdom around 1900 BC
by Semitic Amorite barbarians who overran much of
Canaan, Akkad, and Sumer one hundred years earlier.
In 1792 BC the small kingdom was inherited by Hammurabi who ruled until 1750. During those 42
years, Hammurabi extended the kingdom to encompass all of Sumer to the east and Akkad to the
north. He also defeated the barbarian Gutians in the Zagros Mountains to the northeast who had
previously sacked Akkad. He also pushed back the Elamites (east of Sumer) and the Assyrians
(north of Akkad). This was the first great Babylonian empire.

Following Hammurabi’s death, the empire fell into gradual decline. In 1595 BC Hittites drove down
the Euphrates and sacked Babylon, plundering the city and deposing the Amorite kings. This
ended the first empire. Within 20 years, new invaders called the Kassites had settled around
Babylon, establishing a new dynasty. The Kassites were neither Semitic nor Indo-European, and
probably came from east of the Zagros Mountains.

The Kassites ruled Babylon for several centuries before being conquered by the Assyrians in 1158
BC. Descendants of the Amorites had restored control by 1027 BC.

67

During the Eighth and Seventh Centuries, the Chaldeans, new Semitic immigrants to the area, and
the Assyrians fought for control of Babylon. The Assyrians claimed sovereignty for a while but
sacked the city once as punishment for rebellion.

A Chaldean sheik seized the Babylonian throne and then destroyed the Assyrians with the help of
the Medes. The Chaldean Dynasty and the New Empire lasted from 626 to 539 BC. The revived
Babylonians overran most of the Assyrian Empire from the Persian Gulf to the borders of Egypt.

In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar II captured Jerusalem and forced its king and nobles into exile. When
the puppet ruler of Jerusalem rebelled, the city was taken again in 586 BC after an eighteen­month siege. This time much of the population was deported to Babylon and their descendants
remained there until released by the Persians. This period of Hebrew history was called the
Babylonian Captivity.

Economy

The basic economy of Babylonia was typical for Mesopotamia at the
time. Irrigation and dikes controlled the waters of the Euphrates River,
providing bountiful harvests of grain, vegetables, and fruit in normal
years. These foods were supplemented by herds of sheep and some
cattle.

The Babylonians traded food surpluses for raw materials like copper,
gold, and wood, which they used to manufacture weapons, household
objects, jewelry, and other items that could be traded.

The fabulous wealth of the New Empire (626 to 539 BC) derived from
controlling the east-west and north-south trade, primarily thanks to
control of Phoenicia, Syria, and the other Levant ports. This area had
been the nexus of civilized trade for over a thousand years, and, for that
reason, the prize for every empire and pseudo-empire of the age. Not
long after the end of the Babylonian New Empire, the shift of much trade
to the central and western Mediterranean reduced the importance of this
area.

Religion and culture

The Babylonians worshipped many gods, but chief of these was Marduk,
god of the city of Babylon. Marduk was represented by a dragon in the
artwork that decorated the city. Festivals were held throughout the year
in honor of specific gods to assure their favor. The New Year festival for
Marduk assured fertility in the fields.

For a brief time the New Empire was among the richest in the world. The
city reflected that wealth in its extensive and highly decorated
monuments. The interior of the Temple of Marduk was reportedly
covered with gold.

At the center of a great and rich trading empire, the people of Babylon had access to exotic goods
and manufactured items from throughout the world.

68 Chapter 7: Babylonian culture

Stele of Hammurabi with
Hammurabi confronting the
sun god Shamah above his
code of laws. Hammurabi is
credited with producing the
earliest written body of
laws, c. 1780 BC.

Government

The New Empire government of Babylon adopted many of the Assyrian imperial practices, which
probably contributed to its own short life. The king had overall administrative power, in addition to
his central role in important religious rituals. Governors ruled important provinces on behalf of the
king, but most of these were Babylonians appointed from outside the local area. Local puppets
were often left in place to rule local kingdoms, but this occasionally led to revolt, as in the case of
Jerusalem.

Architecture

The city of Babylon was destroyed and rebuilt several times, usually on top of the old ruins.
Buildings and walls were constructed of mud bricks, first sun-baked, and then baked with fire.

The Babylon of the New Empire period was one of the wealthiest cities in the world. The Chaldean
kings rebuilt the city and established its reputation for splendor for all time. The Euphrates River
passed through the middle of the city and was also directed around its four sides through a moat.
Inside the moat were double walls. The Greek historian Herodotus claimed that the outer wall was
so wide that a chariot with four horses could drive along it. There were several city gates, each
named after an important god. The Ishtar gate opened on the sacred Processional Way that led to
the ziggurat and Temple of Marduk. The gate, sacred way, and temples were decorated with bright
blue glazed tiles depicting real and fantasy animals in relief.

The two sides of the city were connected by a bridge. The east side contained the palace and
temples, including many ziggurats. The greatest of these, built by Nebuchanezzar II, had seven
levels with a small temple to Marduk at the top. This ziggurat was probably the Tower of Babel
mentioned in the Bible. Nebuchanezzar also built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, a multistoried
ziggurat decorated with trees and plants to resemble a mountain. According to legend, the gardens
were built to remind one of his wives of her mountain homeland. The Hanging Gardens were one of
the seven wonders of the ancient world.

69

Military

Little is known of the Babylonian military from either the Old or New Empires, although
Hammurabi’s army of the Old Empire may have made important use of chariots when these were
first coming into use.

The New Empire armies probably copied much from the Assyrians. This would suggest that
Babylonians made extensive use of cavalry, especially mounted bowmen. Foot troops probably
used iron weapons and wore iron helmets and some chain mail armor. The Babylonians and their
less advanced allies, the Medes, took three heavily fortified Assyrian cities in short succession,
suggesting they had mastered the Assyrian techniques for storming cities.

Decline and fall

Following seven turbulent years that saw three new kings in succession and two rebellions, in 556
BC the last of the Chaldean Dynasty, Nabonidus, took the throne of Babylon. He worshipped the
moon god, Sin, but neglected local affairs and important religious rituals associated with other
gods. For several years he did not perform the important New Year festival in the name of Marduk,
the deity of Babylon, that renewed the fertility of the land. He also introduced reforms that gave
effective control of temple finances to himself.

The unrest and dissatisfaction these events fostered came at a time when a new power to the
east, Persia, had been gradually expanding and spreading its influence. Under Cyrus I, the Persians
had first overthrown their masters, the Medes, and then expanded to the northwest into Anatolia.
During these conquests, Cyrus demonstrated a high degree of tolerance and clemency that
encouraged others not to resist.

When Cyrus turned against the Babylonians, he was welcomed by a large segment of the
population, including the influential priests. Cyrus first defeated Nabonidus in battle at Opis.
Nabonidus fled to Babylon but the city surrendered without a fight on October 12, 539 BC, and the
last Babylonian king went into captivity. The Jews and other peoples held in Babylonian captivity
were freed. The entire New Empire of Babylon became part of the Persian Empire and Babylonia
ceased to exist as a separate entity and culture.

Legacy

The first Babylonian empire is best known for the Law Code of King Hammurabi, circa 1750 BC,
purportedly handed down by the god Shamah. The laws of Moses derive from Hammurabi’s code.
The laws themselves are preserved on a 90-inch stone stele that was uncovered in Susa in modern
times. It had been carted off by the Elamites following their sack of Babylon in 1158 BC.

The New Empire of Babylon was noted especially for its wealth and grandeur. This was reported in
Old Testament accounts from the period of the Hebrew Babylonian Captivity and by the Greek
historian Herodotus who visited the city. The most impressive features of the city were its walls,
the Ishtar Gate, the ziggurat and temple to Marduk, the Processional Way, and the Hanging
Gardens.

70 Chapter 7: Babylonian culture

Ancient Choson culture (2333 to 108 BC)

5000BC 4000BC 3000BC 2000BC 1000BC 0AD 800AD

Sumerian

Egyptian
shang

Greek
Hittite
Babylonian

Tool Age Bronze Age Iron Age

Minoan

Assyrian
Phoenician

Ancient Choson

Persian

llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll

Yamato

Note: Any use of the term Choson in
Age of Empires refers to the Ancient
Choson culture.

The Korean peninsula was invaded
by successive waves of Neolithic
peoples, but the culture of the area
changed little until the use of bronze
implements began around the
fifteenth century BC. The Bronze
Age brought significant change to

Korea. Recovered bronze spear
points and arrowheads indicate conquest and warfare were widespread. Towns protected by
earthen walls appeared. Funerary dolmens (rock shelters covered by enormous capstones)
indicate the rise of a stratified political and social structure.

The Bronze Age in Korea lasted until the fourth century
BC. During the Bronze Age, the first large political
groupings of walled town states arose. The most
advanced of these was Ancient Choson.

Location

The state of Ancient Choson was located in the valleys
of the Liao and Taedong Rivers, in the southwestern part
of what is now North Korea. It occupied the Taedong
River basin originally and spread its influence gradually
over a large region of the peninsula.

Capital

The Ancient Choson capital was Wanggom-song, now
modern P’yongyang (the capital of North Korea).

Rise to power

The power of Ancient Choson grew from around 2333 BC to the end of the fourth century BC.
The Ancient Choson expanded possibly due to better agriculture and population growth, better
use of newly available iron weapons, better leaders, or all of the above. When the Chinese
kingdom of Yen encountered the Ancient Choson culture, they referred to them as being arrogant
and cruel, which suggests that the Ancient Choson were formidable warriors.

Despite the apparent strength of Ancient Choson at the end of the fourth century BC, they went
into decline, nevertheless, following the arrival of the Yen kingdom across the Liao River. The
Chinese overlord in control of the Liaotung Peninsula changed several times during the next
century and the political upheaval fostered an immigration of Chinese political, military, and
economic power into Ancient Choson. One refugee, named Wiman, built a power base among the
other refugees and eventually drove the Ancient Choson king from his throne around 190 BC.

71

The new kingdom, called Wiman Choson, was a
hybrid of Korean and Chinese influences. Due to its
superior military and economic strength, it
subjugated smaller Korean states to its north, east,
and south. This placed the Wiman Choson between
the now dominant Han Chinese and the remaining
Korean states in the south, allowing it to control
trade between the two regions. For three
generations, the Wiman Choson dominated north
central Korea.

Economy

The principal economic activity of Bronze and early
Iron Age Korea was agriculture. Rice was the main
food crop of southern Korea. Raising livestock
(oxen, horses, pigs, and dogs) was more important
in the north. The basic farming unit was the village,
made up of headmen, free peasants, and a few
slaves. Peasants and slaves worked mainly on
communal farms. There were some peasant-owned
lands as well. The free peasants were heavily taxed and provided labor to the state. They were not
permitted to bear arms or serve in the armies.

Bronze arrow found buried in the valley of
the Liao and Taedong Rivers, c. 400 BC.

Religion and culture

The leaders of the early walled towns in Korea performed both political and religious functions. The
dignity and authority of these leaders was enhanced by their acknowledged descent from a sun
god. Political and religious power split gradually into two separate functions as the confederation
grew in size. Rituals were thereafter directed by specialists.

The primitive religion of prehistoric Korea was based on animism and shamanism. Primitive priests
were magicians who attempted to move the gods by evocation. By the time of Ancient Choson,
priests prayed to the gods humbly and earnestly for favor.

The ancient Koreans believed in the immortality of the soul and buried their elite with elaborate
ritual. They also practiced divination. The two most important festivals of the year were tied to the
growing season. In the spring they prayed for abundance and in the fall they celebrated
thanksgiving.

Government

Village communities were governed by a ruling elite that kept order, allocated land and resources,
collected taxes, and provided security. The individual communities were held together in
confederation by military and economic means. Ancient Choson took the name wang (king) for its
leader about the time that the nearby Chinese kingdom of Ye employed the same title.

72 Chapter 7: Ancient Choson Culture

Military

Little is known about the armies of Ancient Choson except that they were standing armies and not
levies of peasants. Evidence of horses and chariots is not widespread, suggesting that only the
richest warriors could afford these enhancements. Bronze spear points and arrowheads from the
early days of the Ancient Choson suggest an army of spearmen and archers. Later finds include
bronze daggers and spears of distinctive styles, iron daggers, and iron spear points. The daggers
suggest that these short weapons were used by infantry for close combat in addition to spears.

The prowess of Ancient Choson armies can be inferred from their expansion and dominance of the
region and the comments about Ancient Choson recorded by their Chinese neighbors.

Decline and fall

Unified China under the Han Dynasty was not pleased by Wiman Choson’s growth and control of
eastward trade, and was concerned about a possible alliance between Wiman Choson and the
Hsiung-nu (barbarians then expanding out of Mongolia into Manchuria). The aggressive Emperor
Wu of Han launched an attack against the Wiman Choson when diplomacy failed to bring them to
heel. The Wiman Choson were a tough adversary but were weakened by defections and
collaborationists among the nobility. The Wiman Choson capital fell in 108 BC and the kingdom
came to an end.

Legacy

The legacy of the Ancient Choson was
a Korean culture that remained
separate from that of China, despite
the proximity and influence of that
enormous neighbor.

73

Egyptian culture (5000 to 30 BC)

The Egyptian culture was one of the
oldest and most long-lived of antiquity.
It benefited from an abundance of
good farmland, nearby mineral
resources, and a good strategic
position. Despite occasional invasion
and internal strife, it endured as a
distinctive culture for nearly 5000
years.

5000BC 4000BC 3000BC 2000BC 1000BC 0AD 800AD

Sumerian

Egyptian
shang

Greek
Hittite
Babylonian

Tool Age Bronze Age Iron Age

Minoan

Assyrian
Phoenician

Ancient Choson

lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll llllll

Persian

lllll

Yamato

Location

Ancient Egypt occupied almost the same area as modern
Egypt does today. Its civilization stayed very close to the
Nile River. Because it was almost entirely surrounded by
desert, enemies could approach only from the west and
northeast along the Mediterranean coast, from the south
down the river valley, or directly over the sea.

Capital

During its long history, the capital of Egypt was located
at various times in Hierakonpolis, Memphis,
Herakleopolis, Thebes, It-towy, Akhetaten, Tanis, Sais,
and Alexandria. The most important of these were

Memphis and Thebes. Alexandria was founded as the
capital by Alexander the Great in 331 BC. Greek overlords, the Ptolemaic dynasty, ruled from here
until 30 BC.

Rise to power

Agriculture was brought to the Nile Valley prior to 5000 BC by immigrants from the highlands of
Palestine. By 3000 BC, agriculture had spread southward up the Nile. Flooding was under control
and irrigation put much more land under cultivation. The abundance of food led to large
populations and increased wealth for the area.

The early history of Egypt was a period of consolidation. Two separate kingdoms rose and vied for
power along the river. Around 3100 BC, King Menes of Upper Egypt conquered Lower Egypt
(centered on the lowland river delta) and established the First Dynasty.

Between 3100 BC and 1300 BC, the Egyptians struggled with Nubians and Kushites up the Nile
to the south. Forts and garrisons held the frontier but during periods of weakness these were
destroyed. Around 1300 BC the Nubians suffered an important defeat and were neutralized as a
threat for about 500 years.

74 Chapter 7: Egyptian Culture

Egypt’s Dynasty XIII, 1783 to 1640 BC, was very weak. During this period the frontier forts to the
south were lost and Semitic immigrants from the east moved into the delta. These immigrants,
called the Hyksos, took control of the entire delta region in 1674 BC. The Hyksos eventually
adopted Egyptian culture and language, and introduced the horse and chariot.

The New Kingdom was founded by Dynasty XVIII in 1552 BC, following a successful war to drive
out the Hyksos. This dynasty was the great age of the warrior pharaohs and Egyptian empire. To
prevent further incursions from the east, the Egyptians attempted to establish control over the
kingdoms in the Levant and Palestine. During this period they vied for control with the Hittites and
Mitanni, as well as the local kings. The Egyptians were the dominant power in the Near East until
around 1200 BC when the entire area was overrun by barbarians.

Economy

Egypt was an agricultural society dependent on the water and soil brought down each year by the
Nile from the highlands of Ethiopia. Extensive irrigation made it possible to farm fields not adjacent
to the river but still close enough to be inundated each year and receive new sediments. The
principal crops were wheat and barley that were used to make bread and beer, the staples of their
diet. They also grew fruits and vegetables and raised cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, geese, ducks, and
pigeons. The abundance of food meant a large population and allowed the export of food.

The Nile passes through several hilly regions and some of these were rich in minerals. The nearby
Sinai Peninsula also held mineral riches. Unlike some other ancient cultures, the Egyptians had
relatively easy access to copper and gold, further increasing their wealth. The hills were sources
of granite, limestone, and sandstone that they used for construction.

The Egyptians were one of the first cultures to build boats and they eventually took these out into
the Mediterranean. Egypt became an important Mediterranean port of call as trade increased
because it was a rich market for both buying and selling.

Religion and culture

The Egyptian religion had over 2000 gods, though only a few of these were predominant. The
important gods had a home town where their principal temple was located. One of the most
important was Ra, the sun god, understandably critical to an agricultural society.

They believed in a life after death. They referred to this as the “next world,” and thought it was
somewhere to the west. They developed elaborate burials and embalming to preserve the body for
this second life. Goods and servants were buried with royalty and nobles to serve them.

Government

The ancient Egyptians believed their kings were descended from the sun god Ra. They believed
they could communicate with the gods through the king.

The king had absolute power but was required to perform several important duties. He was
responsible for the harvest and irrigation of crops. He directed the government, trade, and foreign
policy. He enforced the laws and led the army. During the New Kingdom, the pharaohs usually
commanded their armies in the field.

Reporting directly to the pharaoh were two viziers, one for Lower Egypt based in Memphis and
one for Upper Egypt based in Thebes. Below the viziers were rural districts controlled by

75

governors and towns controlled by mayors. These officials carried out the pharaoh’s orders and
collected taxes. Scribes kept the records.

The Egyptians had no coinage until they were conquered by Alexander the Great. All workers paid
taxes by turning over a percentage of their production, whether it was fish, grain, trade goods,
pottery, or other goods. In addition, each household had to provide a laborer for several weeks
each year for mining or public works. The pyramids were probably built by laborers putting in their
annual service.

Military

The Egyptians were among the first cultures to possess the necessary population and wealth to
build standing armies of professional soldiers. Prior to the Hyksos invasion around 1675 BC,
Egyptian soldiers were equipped with simple bows, maces, and spears. The Hyksos introduced
the horse and chariot, which were quickly adopted by the Egyptians in turn. The dominance of the
Near East by New Kingdom Egypt, from 1600 to 1200 BC, was primarily due to the large and
powerful chariot armies sent into battle there. These chariots carried a driver and composite bow
archer and were the elite of the army.

Decline and fall

Egypt survived the catastrophe of 1200 BC by fighting off several
major attempted invasions. They went into decline, nevertheless,
following the death of Rameses III who was the last of the great
warrior pharaohs. Their decline was partly due to trade coming to a
virtual halt for several generations. A series of weak kings and civil
wars over succession to the throne also eroded their strength.

In 728 BC Egypt was conquered by Nubia and held for 60 years. In
665 BC the Assyrians completed a conquest of Egypt by sacking
Thebes. A new native Egyptian dynasty arose in 664 BC,

Khafre, from Egypt’s 4th dynasty, had the sphinx
built in his image as a monument to the sun god,
Ra. The pyramid in the background is Khafre’s
tomb, c. 2500 BC.

briefly before succumbing once more to Persian invasion by 332 BC. Within a year, however, the
Persians themselves were gone, destroyed by Alexander the Great who was accepted by the
Egyptians as their pharaoh.

Greeks ruled Egypt as overlords from the time of Alexander the Great until 30 BC when Cleopatra
VII, the last of the Ptolemaic dynasty, and Mark Antony were defeated by Octavian. Egypt
thereafter became part of the Roman Empire.

eventually throwing out the Nubians and asserting their
independence from Assyria by stopping payment of tribute. In 525
BC Egypt was conquered again from the east, this time by
Cambryses II of Persia. When the Persians faltered in their war
with the Greeks, the Egyptians reclaimed their independence

Legacy

The ancient Egyptians are remembered for the quality and quantity of cultural objects that have
survived to the present, including the Pyramids, the Sphinx, the treasures of Tutankhamen’s tomb,
the other monuments and temples of the Nile Valley, hieroglyphics, mummies, and papyrus. They
are also remembered in the West because of their prominent role in the history of ancient Israel as
recounted in the Old Testament.

76 Chapter 7: Egyptian Culture

Greek culture (2100 to 146 BC)

5000BC 4000BC 3000BC 2000BC 1000BC 0AD 800AD

Sumerian

Egyptian
shang

Greek
Hittite
Babylonian

Tool Age Bronze Age Iron Age

Minoan

Assyrian
Phoenician

Ancient Choson

lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll

Persian

lllll

Yamato

The ancient culture with the broadest
and most long-lasting impact on the
future of Western civilization was
that of Greece. The Greeks
dominated the known world militarily
for only a brief period, but their
cultural influence spread farther and
lasted much longer. Rediscovered in
the West in large part after the
Medieval Dark Age, it was an
important foundation for the growth
of modern western civilization.

The Greeks never formed a unified kingdom, but existed as city-states, sometimes working
together and sometimes at war with each other. At the zenith of Greek military power under
Alexander the Great, they were a collection of city-states in cooperation.

Location

Greek culture was centered on the mainland of modern
Greece but spread to the islands of the Aegean, into
the lower Balkans, across the Aegean to the western
coast of Anatolia, to Sicily, to parts of North Africa, and
to southern France (Marseilles was founded as a Greek
colony). The campaigns of Alexander greatly expanded
the culture, establishing it in central Anatolia, the
Levant, Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia to the
borders of India. In the early second century BC, it was
possible to travel from the south of modern France to
India using only Greek to communicate.

Capital

As a collection of city-states, there was usually no capital of the Greek culture. During the Bronze
Age, Mycenea was one of the strongest and richest citadels. During the Archaic and Classical
periods, Athens (the cultural center) and Sparta (the strongest military power) vied for
prominence. During the brief Greek apogee under Philip and Alexander, the de facto capital was
the Macedonian city of Pydna. Following the death of Alexander, his empire was eventually divided
into three parts. The Antigonid Dynasty ruled Greece and Macedonia from Pydna. The Selucids
ruled Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Syria, the Levant, and Persia from a newly built city, Selucia, on the
Tigris River. The Ptolemies ruled Egypt from another newly built city, Alexandria.

Rise to power

The history of ancient Greek culture is divided into several periods—the Bronze Age (2100 to
1200 BC), the Dark Age (1200 to 800 BC), the Archaic Period (800 to 500 BC), the Classical Age
(500 to 336 BC), and the Hellenistic Period (336 to 30 BC).

77

The Bronze Age saw the rise of the first cities on the mainland.
These were predominantly fortified palaces on hilltops.
This culture was named after its greatest citadel,
Mycenea. The Mycenean culture
disappeared around 1200 BC
following attacks by barbarians.
The city of Troy was also
sacked around this
time.

The catastrophe
of 1200 BC
(described
above)
devastated the
economy of
Greece and
ushered in a Dark
Age that lasted
about 400 years. Gradually civilization reappeared at old sites, such as Athens, and at new sites
such as Sparta and Corinth.

By 800 BC the city-states of the mainland were economic and military powers. During the next
300 years, the Archaic Period, the Greeks expanded by establishing colonies across the Aegean
in Anatolia (Ionia) and along the central and western Mediterranean coasts. The Archaic Period
came to an end when the rising eastern power of Persia came into conflict with the Greeks over
the Anatolian coast.

The period of 500 to 336 BC was the Classical Age of Greece, dominated first by the wars with
Persia and then the Peloponnesian civil war between Athens and Sparta. Although this period is
defined by military events, it was also a time of many important cultural advances.

The Hellenistic Period takes its name from the Greek word
period began with the installation of Alexander as king of Macedon following the assassination of
his father. In 13 years of military campaigns, Alexander conquered most of the known world and
spread the Greek culture behind his armies.

Economy

Grains and bread were staples of the Greek diet but they could be grown only in a few fertile
areas. Most of Greece was hilly and not suitable for large farms on the scale of Egypt or
Mesopotamia. Farmers grew fruits and vegetables where they could clear fields. On the hillsides
they grew olives for food and oil. Further up the hills they grew grapes for wine.

Horses were raised mainly in Thessaly and Macedonia where there were open grasslands.
Elsewhere they were kept only by the rich. Cattle were kept mainly for milk, pigs and poultry for
meat, and sheep for leather and meat. Seafood supplemented diets in coastal areas.

The Greeks were renowned for pottery that was both functional and beautiful. Decorations on
pottery revealed much about the ancient Greek culture to historians.

78 Chapter 7: Greek Culture

Hellene

, which means Greek. This

The Greeks took advantage of their geographic position between the Aegean and Mediterranean
Seas to engage in trade. City-states traded among themselves and overseas. Thessaly and
Macedonia exported horses, for example, while Athens exported honey and silver.

Coins were first used in Lydia, a small kingdom in northwestern Anatolia, at the end of the seventh
century BC. The concept quickly spread to the Ionian Greek colonies and then throughout the
Greek culture. The most popular coins were made of silver.

Religion and culture

The Greeks believed in many gods who were responsible for the living and the dead. Their gods
were very humanistic-they got married, had children, felt love and jealousy, and sought revenge.
Legends of the gods taught what pleased and what angered them. The principal gods were the
twelve Olympians thought to live on Mount Olympus. They were led by Zeus, ruler of the heavens.
Temples were built to provide earthly homes for individual gods. The Parthenon in Athens, for
example, was dedicated to the goddess Athene. Festivals were held to please individual gods and
persuade them to be munificent.

Before an important project was started, an oracle or soothsayer was consulted to learn the will of
the gods. The most famous of these was the Oracle of Delphi, where a priestess called the Pythia
would voice the will of Apollo. Priests would interpret the Pythia’s often vague replies.

Music, poetry, and theater were an important part of the Greek culture. All Greek cities and
colonies built a theater or amphitheater.

Society consisted of two main groups—free people and slaves.
Slaves were owned by free people and were employed as servants
and laborers. Slaves were purchased in international slave markets
or were prisoners of war. Free men in Athens were either citizens,

metics

born to Athenian parents, or
groups were required to serve in the army, but only citizens could
become government officials or jurors.

, born outside of Athens. Both

Government

An independent city-state was called a
city and surrounding countryside. The largest of these was Athens,
with about one thousand square miles of territory.

During the Archaic Period, most city-states were governed by a
group of rich landowners. These were the
people, or the aristocrats. Resentment of aristocratic rule led to riots
when traders and craftsmen began to prosper but had no say in
government. Beginning around 650 BC, individuals called tyrants
were allowed to rule to keep the peace. Government was improved under an enlightened tyrant
but the system was susceptible to corruption. In 508 BC Athens introduced a new system called
democracy, in which all citizens took part in their government. Women, foreigners, and slaves had
no say.

polis

. Each consisted of the

aristoi

, meaning best

Under the leadership of Pericles, the
Parthenon was built to honor Athena,
c. 432 BC.

79

Architecture

Greek homes were simple structures of mud and brick but their public buildings, especially
temples, were beautiful structures of stone. A distinctive feature of Greek architecture was the
use of columns supporting horizontal lintels.

Military

During the Bronze Age, the armies of the individual palaces were mainly chariots manned by the
richest citizens. These armies were destroyed by barbarians around 1200 BC, sending Greece
into its Dark Age.

During the Archaic Age, the aristocrats at first dominated the army as cavalry because they alone
could afford horses. Foot soldiers came from the poorer classes that could not afford horses or
better weapons and armor.

Eventually trade and wealth increased, while the cost fell for new weapons made of
iron. The cavalry was replaced in importance by a new army of well-equipped foot
soldiers called

Each city had a different system for raising its army. In Athens,
all free men aged 20 to 50 could be called upon in time
of war. Each of the ten Athenian tribes had to
provide enough troops for one regiment and one
commander, called a

Hoplites carried on their left arm a large
round shield that extended from neck to
thigh. They wore bronze helmets with a
horsehair crest on top to make the
soldier look taller and more powerful.
For body protection they wore a
cuirass of bronze, or leather and
bronze, from shoulder to
chest, plus bronze greaves
on the front of the lower
legs. Their weapons were a
long spear and a short iron
sword.

hoplites

.

strategoi

.

Hoplites fought in the phalanx, a
square of men usually eight ranks
deep. It was important that the
phalanx move and fight together.
Flutes and other musical instruments
helped them keep in step. The terrifying
hand-to-hand clash of opposing
phalanxes called for extreme courage and
discipline.

80 Chapter 7: Greek Culture

The Greeks disdained the use of cavalry and skirmish troops using bows, slings, or javelins. As
long as they fought among themselves or were lucky, this was not a problem. Extensive contact
with other military systems during the Persian Wars eventually convinced them that the phalanx
needed to be supported. The ultimate Greek army employed heavy and light cavalry, light infantry,
and skirmishers in support of its heavy hoplite infantry.

Decline and fall

Following the death of Alexander the Great, the city-states of mainland Greece attempted to rebel
against Macedonian rule but were defeated in the Lamian War of 323-322 BC. During the next 40
years, the War of the Diadochi contested the division of Alexander’s empire. It was eventually
divided into three kingdoms (Greece, Egypt, and Persia). These three kingdoms made up the
Hellenistic world.

The Antigonid Dynasty ruled Greece and Macedon but lost control of their colonies in southern
Italy to the Romans in 275 BC. The Greeks supported the Carthaginians against Rome during the
Punic Wars and paid for that once the Carthaginians were destroyed. Three Macedonian Wars
against Rome resulted in the end of the Antigonid Dynasty in 168 BC. Following an unsuccessful
Macedonian revolt, the city-states of Greece became provinces of the Roman Empire in 146 BC.

The Selucid Dynasty attempted to rule what had been the enormous Persian Empire. This proved
impossible and parts began rebelling very quickly. By 180 BC their kingdom had been halved. In 64
BC the Roman general Pompey seized the Selucid kingdom and incorporated it into the Roman
Empire.

The Ptolemaic Dynasty consisted only of Egypt. Because of its relative seclusion and wealth, it
lasted the longest of the three Hellenistic kingdoms. Queen Cleopatra VII and her husband Marc
Antony of Rome were defeated in battle by Octavian at Actium in 31 BC. The last Ptolemy
committed suicide and Egypt became part of the Roman Empire in 30 BC.

Legacy

The Greek language and culture spread behind Alexander the Great’s armies. The Romans in turn
adopted much of the Greek culture, preserving it and spreading it to new parts of the world. After
the fall of Rome, Greek culture was preserved and expanded upon within the Byzantine Empire
and in the Arab world, and passed on to the West following the Renaissance.

The legacy of ancient Greece has had an impact on many disciplines, including medicine (the
scientific approach to medicine; the Hippocratic Oath taken by doctors), mathematics (Euclidean

Iliad

geometry; the Pythagorean theorem), literature (the
sculpture, language (the Bible’s New Testament was written in Greek; thousands of words passed
on to modern languages), architecture (the White House; the British Museum), history (Herodutus
is regarded as the father of history), politics (democracy), philosophy (all philosophical studies
since Plato have been referred to by one writer as mere footnotes to his work), science (the
scientific method; laws of nature; the classification of plants and animals; the heliocentric theory),
athletics (the Olympic Games), and trade (Greeks established trade routes to India and the Silk
Road to Asia).

and the

Odyssey

), theater, poetry,

81

Hittite culture (2000 to 1200 BC)

The extent of the Hittite civilization and
empire was rediscovered only within
the last hundred years. The Hittites had
been mentioned several times in the
Old Testament, but were considered
only bit players. Excavations of sites in
Turkey and Syria, plus the
decipherment of inscriptions and
recovered clay tablets, revealed that
the Hittites were a world power at one
time, rivals of the Egyptians and
conquerors of Babylon.

5000BC 4000BC 3000BC 2000BC 1000BC 0AD 800AD

llllllllll

Sumerian

Egyptian
shang

Greek
Hittite
Babylonian

Tool Age Bronze Age Iron Age

Minoan

Assyrian
Phoenician

Ancient Choson

Persian

llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll

Yamato

Location

The Hittite empire was centered in Asia Minor (modern
Turkey). At its maximum, it extended from the Aegean
coast of Anatolia, east to the Euphrates River,
southeastward into Syria as far as Damascus, and south
along the eastern Mediterranean coast of the Levant.
Hittite King Mursuli sacked Babylon around 1600 BC, but
did not attempt to hold the region.

Historians do not know where the Hittites originated or
how they got to Asia Minor. Studies of their language
indicate that they were probably of European origin and
migrated south through the Balkans or past the eastern
end of the Black Sea sometime around 2000 BC.

Capital

The greatest Hittite capital was at Hattusas, outside the modern Turkish town of Bogazköy in north
central Turkey, inland from the Black Sea. This city had previously been the capital of the Hatti, a
local kingdom that was conquered by the Hittites around 1900 BC. The name Hittite derives from
the name of the Hatti. The capital was moved to Hattusas around 1500 BC and the city was noted
for its massive walls and placement in rugged terrain.

Rise to power

Around 2000 BC when the Hittites entered Asia Minor, the region was populated by small, yet
sophisticated, kingdoms, each no larger than a thousand people. The Hittites began expanding
their kingdom around 1900 BC, using both force and diplomacy to bring rival city-states and
kingdoms in Asia Minor under control. The Hittite kingdom went through several periods of
expansion and contraction until around 1400 BC.

Beginning then, several strong kings in succession expanded the Hittite empire across all of Asia
Minor, into Syria, and beyond the Euphrates River. The push into Syria brought the Hittites into
conflict with the Egyptians who also sought to dominate this area.

82 Chapter 7: Hittite Culture

For several generations the Hittites and Egyptians remained diplomatic and military rivals. The
great battle of Kadesh was fought between these superpowers around 1300 BC and was
commemorated in Egypt by a great pictorial relief, an epic poem, and an official written record.
After several decades of uneasy stalemate, the two powers signed a peace treaty and mutual
defense pact, perhaps in response to growing Assyrian power to the east. A copy of the treaty
was inscribed on the walls of an Egyptian temple at Karnak where it can be read today.

Economy

The Hittite imperial boundaries encompassed a diverse geography, including expansive grassy
plains, mountains, sea coast, river valleys, and desert. Their economy was based mainly on grain
and sheep raising, but they also possessed large deposits of silver, copper, and lead ore. They
were adept metalworkers and among the earliest makers of iron, although during their time iron
was more valuable than gold and not available in any quantity.

Religion and culture

The Great Temple at Hattusas was the religious center of the empire. The Hittite king was also the
high priest of the kingdom and split his time between government, religious duties, and conquest.
The king’s dual role was useful in unifying the culture of the kingdom among its diverse peoples.
Each year the king/high priest traveled extensively to preside at festivals. These personal
appearances brought in rich donations and helped stabilize the realm.

Hittite religion was polytheistic. It was tolerant of other beliefs and flexible about incorporating new
gods already worshipped by newly conquered peoples.

Hittite culture discovered so far pales in comparison to that of their contemporaries in Bablyon and
Egypt. We have only a few bronze and stone statuettes, seal impressions, and rock carvings to
judge their artistic ability. One enduring symbol from their artwork is the double-headed eagle that
was adopted as a national symbol by both Austria and Russia.

They used cuneiform for writing as well as their own hieroglyphics. They patterned their laws on
those of Bablyon, though they tempered their severity.

Government

Some researchers believe that the early Hittite government was the first constitutional monarchy.

pankus

The
laws and probably had the power to remove and install kings as needed. Because they had no law
of succession until circa 1500 BC, the death of a king prior to then often triggered a struggle for
power. The authority of the
succession was adopted.

During the empire years, the Hittite ruler was called the Great King. Each year the rulers of vassal
states brought gifts to Hattusas and pledged their loyalty. In return for military protection and
favorable trading status, vassal states contributed money and troops to the empire.

, probably an assembly of nobleman, monitored the king’s activities in relation to their

pankus

waned as the empire began to grow and after a law of

Diplomacy

Extensive records and correspondence preserved on clay tablets have revealed much detail about
Hittite diplomacy and politics. Decipherment of specific tablets connected the Hittites with two of

83

This Hittite sphinx sculpture
comes from late in the Hittite
civilization. It guarded Tell
Alaf in Syria.

like human hands. Soldiers carried bronze rectangular shields and wore bronze conical helmets
with ear flaps and a long extension down the back that protected the neck. They were apparently
very competent at conducting sieges and assaulting cities that resisted.

They were possibly the first to adopt the horse for pulling light two-wheeled chariots and made
these vehicles a mainstay of their field armies. Egyptian engravings of the Battle of Kadesh show
three men in the Hittite chariots using spears, but other evidence suggests that they carried only a
driver and archer. Perhaps the chariot archer replaced the chariot javelin thrower. Hittite chariot
armies were feared by most of their contemporaries.

the most famous events in antiquity—the sacking of the legendary city of Troy

Iliad

from the
Diplomatic letters to a city on the east coast of Asia Minor helped establish the
site of the city of Troy.

In 1353 BC the greatest Hittite king, Suppiluliuma I, was besieging the city of
Carchemish that controlled an important ford and trade route over the Euphrates
River. During the siege he received a letter from Ankhesenamun, the newly
widowed wife of Tutankhamun. The queen of Egypt asked that Suppiluliuma send
one of his sons to be her new husband and king of Egypt. The stage was set for
a very important alliance by marriage. Suppiluliuma took too long to investigate
and negotiate, however. An Egyptian courtier-priest seized the widow and the
throne, and peace between the two great powers was not arranged until 70
years later.

and the death of the Egyptian boy pharaoh Tutankhamun.

Military

Hittite foot troops made extensive use of the powerful recurved bow and bronze­tipped arrows. Surviving artwork depicts Hittite soldiers as stocky and bearded,
wearing distinctive shoes with curled-up-toes. For close combat they used
bronze daggers, lances, spears, sickle-shaped swords, and battle-axes shaped

Decline and fall

Following the establishment of peace with Egypt around 1280 BC, there ensued 80 years of
relative peace and prosperity for much of the civilized world. During the great catastrophe circa
1200 BC, however, the Hittite empire was suddenly destroyed. The fortifications at Hattusas were
thrown down and the city burned for good. Stone sculptures were smashed apart. It is not known
by whom, but it is possible that the Hittite armies fell off in ability during decades of relative peace
while the growing riches of the empire made it an ever more attractive target, probably to
barbarians from the west and north. The Kaskans, barbarians from the Russian steppes,
penetrated the empire around 1300 BC and plundered Hattusas. They may have returned to finish
the job for good.

Legacy

The legacy of the Hittites is limited because they were lost as a culture until rediscovered only
recently. They are remembered in the Bible as relatively small but sturdy warriors, but for little
else. A small remembrance of the Hittites is their pointed shoes with turned up toes seen in many
carvings and reliefs that survive. This style of shoe is still seen occasionally in Turkey as
ceremonial dress.

84 Chapter 7: Hittite Culture

Minoan culture (2200 to 1200 BC)

5000BC 4000BC 3000BC 2000BC 1000BC 0AD 800AD

Sumerian

Egyptian
shang

Greek
Hittite
Babylonian

Tool Age Bronze Age Iron Age

Minoan

Assyrian
Phoenician

Ancient Choson

Persian

llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll

Yamato

Primitive agricultural communities
sprang up around the Aegean Sea by
6000 BC but this area lagged behind
Egypt and Mesopotamia in advancing
toward civilization. For reasons not
yet understood, the island-based
Minoan culture made a sudden leap
forward around 2000 BC and became
the first civilization of Europe. The
sudden take-off may have been

stimulated by trading contact with
Mesopotamia through Levant ports or through contact with Egypt. One theory suggests that
refugees from Egypt during a time of turmoil may have emigrated to Crete and brought technology
and ideas with them.

Location

The Minoan culture was centered on the island of
Crete, but extended to other nearby islands,
including Thera and Rhodes. They may have
colonized the Anatolian coast at Miletus and
elsewhere. By the extension of trade, they
influenced the developing Greek culture on the
mainland and other Aegean islands.

Capital

The palace at Knossos on Crete was the capital of
the Minoan civilization.

Rise to power

The Minoans were an economic power, not a military one. They preserved their economic
advantages by apparently controlling ship traffic in the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas. For
approximately 800 years they dominated trade in these regions. They were so secure on their
islands, protected by their ships, that they never fortified their cities.

Economy

Crete was rich in natural resources, including farmland, water supplies, timber, copper, building
stone, and access to the sea. The Minoans were prosperous thanks to agriculture and fishing, but
grew rich primarily on trade.

85

Religion and culture

The high standard of living, the relative abundance of food and other good things, and the security
of their island homes gave the Minoans an outlook on life substantially different from other
contemporary cultures. Perhaps because life was good, worship and communication with gods
was not stressed. They built no great temples. Their religion was dominated by female goddesses
who protected the household, the crops, and the animals.

The Minoans may have practiced
human sacrifice at one time. There is
a famous tale of a minotaur, half man,
half bull, who lived in a labyrinth
beneath the palace. Young people
were sacrificed to the minotaur each
year. The high priest or king may have
worn a bull mask for the sacrifice,
creating the illusion of half man, half
animal.

They believed in an afterlife and buried
the dead with food and possessions
that would be of use.

The Minoans developed a hieroglyphic
writing system around 2000 BC,
perhaps following trading contact with
the Egyptians. By 1900 BC they had developed a new script now called Linear A. A third script
called Linear B came into use at Knossos around 1450 BC.

Surviving artwork shows the people of Crete engaging in the sport of bull-jumping. The
significance of this activity is not known. Young men and women are depicted approaching a
charging bull, grabbing it by the horns, and somersaulting over the animal’s back to land behind it.

The Toreador fresco from the Palace at Knossos depicts
the sport of bull vaulting, c. 1500 BC.

The everyday life of the Minoans was pleasant and relatively free of war and unrest, as witnessed
by the richness and exuberance of their frescos, wall paintings, and decorative objects.

Government

The great palace at Knossos was also a giant warehouse. The distribution of food and other goods
may have been organized from here.

The only king whose name survives was Minos. It may be that the word
office, not the man, like the Egyptian term pharaoh.

Military

The Minoans had little apparent need for an army, relying instead on their navy to keep any
enemies from approaching. Minoan ships were galleys, manned by rowers on both sides. Narrow
galleys were fast and maneuverable, allowing them to overtake slower sailing ships of the day.
They did not employ rams at this early date, according to the evidence of surviving artwork.

86 Chapter 7: Minoan Culture

minos

referred to the

Decline and fall

The idyllic life of the Minoans was disrupted by natural disasters. The archaeological remains
indicate that the palace of Knossos was destroyed by an earthquake in 1700 BC and rebuilt. The
nearby island of Thera was partially sunk by a volcanic eruption and the resulting tidal wave
probably struck Crete, causing extensive damage. The Minoan culture suffered from recurrent
earthquakes and the Thera explosion, but the extent of the damage and its effect on their
civilization is debated.

There are two main scenarios for the end of the Minoan culture. According to the oldest theory,
mainland Greeks invaded around 1450 BC, essentially destroying the culture, although it lingered
for 700 years more until mainland Greece itself was overrun. In the second scenario, based on
more recent research, the Minoans suffered through disaster and a resulting loosening of their
control of sea trade and movement, but did not succumb to the mainland Greeks. The Minoans
were instead destroyed along with the Myceneans on the mainland by barbarians as part of the
catastrophe of 1200 BC. Evidence suggests that by 1180 BC the Cretans had moved from
coastal towns and palaces to defensive city sites high in the hills. Attacks and the threat of further
attacks were the probable cause of this shift.

Legacy

The Minoans are remembered today for their fabulous palace and frescoes at Knossos, now
partially restored. It may have been the largest and most beautiful palace of the late Bronze Age.
They are also remembered for their mysterious writings, some of which continue to defy linguists.

87

Persian culture (700 to 332 BC)

The Persians were unlikely empire
builders but in a relatively short span of
years they conquered most of the Near
and Middle East. They benefited from
the leadership of a series of strong
kings in succession and by a lack of
competent leaders among their
neighbors. They expanded very quickly,
wobbled for a few hundred years under
internal and external pressures, and
then collapsed suddenly and utterly.

5000BC 4000BC 3000BC 2000BC 1000BC 0AD 800AD

Sumerian

Egyptian
shang

Greek
Hittite
Babylonian

Tool Age Bronze Age Iron Age

Minoan

Assyrian
Phoenician

Ancient Choson

Persian

llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll

Yamato

Despite their accomplishments and the breadth of their influence, our knowledge of the Persians is
surprisingly limited. Very few Persian records have survived and many of these are written in
Elamite, a language we understand poorly today. There is nothing to compare with surviving
records of the Egyptians, Greeks, Hittites, and others. Historians rely heavily on what neighbors
wrote about the Persians, such as Herodotus who traveled widely within their empire during its
peak. Archaeology has revealed that while the empire was certainly in decline prior to Alexander’s
conquest, it was once well-governed, efficient, and no fluke of history.

Location

The Persians were originally one of several Aryan tribes that
migrated into modern Iran from the plains of southern Russia
around 1400 BC (the word Iran is derived from Aryan). They

settled the southwest corner of the Iranian plateau, on the
north shore of the Persian Gulf, on lands vacated by the
Elamites who had been conquered and enslaved by the
Assyrians. The Persians were separated from the great
civilizations of Mesopotamia by the Zagros Mountains.

At its peak, the Persian Empire stretched from the Indus River
across the Near East to the eastern Mediterranean coast,
south into Egypt along the Nile to Sudan, across Anatolia, and
into Thrace and Macedonia.

Capital

During the history of the Persian Empire, five cities served as the royal capital. The first was
Pasargadae, built by Cyrus to commemorate his victory over the Medes. It was remote and
impractical as an administrative capital. Babylon was rebuilt by Cyrus as a royal capital for his use
when affairs brought him to Mesopotamia. Darius moved the empire’s administration to Susa, the
old Elamite capital, perhaps for efficiency. It was well-located at the hub of a road and water
transport network.

The extreme summer heat of Susa drove the Persian court first to the higher altitudes of Ecbatana,
the old Median capital in the Zagros Mountains. In 520 BC Darius began building the greatest of

88 Chapter 7: Persian Culture

the Persian capitals at Persepolis. Construction of Persepolis was interrupted for long periods and
was not completed nearly 200 years later when the city was sacked and burned to the ground by
Alexander.

Rise to power

The Persians settled on relatively poor and remote lands where they were little troubled by first
the Elamites to their west, then the Assyrians who destroyed the Elamites around 640 BC, then
the Medes (to their north) and resurgent Babylonians who conquered Assyria in 609 BC.
Throughout this period, the various petty Persian kings were vassals of the richer and more
advanced Medes.

Cyrus II became king of the small Persian kingdom of Anshan in 559 BC. Within ten years he had
subjugated the eastern part of Persia and established a reputation among even his rivals as a
natural leader to whom men gravitated. When the Median king attempted to reassert control over
Persia around 550 BC, the Median army revolted on the battlefield, handing over their king to
Cyrus and surrendering their own capital at Ecbatana. The Median Empire, stretching across
northern Mesopotamia into Anatolia, underwent a nearly bloodless change of management. Cyrus
II was now Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Empire.

Cyrus then conquered in quick succession the Lydians of Asia Minor (led by the King Croesus of
legendary wealth who had invented coins), Greek colonies on the Aegean coast, the Parthians,
and the Hyrcanians to the north. In 541 BC he marched into the steppes of Central Asia,
establishing a fortified border along the Jaxartes River. In 540 BC, his 19th year as king, Cyrus
turned on his onetime ally, Babylon. After one battle, the army and people of Babylon surrendered
their king, city, and empire that stretched from southern Mesopotamia to Phoenicia. Before Cyrus
could expand into Egypt or toward Greece, however, he was killed fighting nomadic tribesmen who
were threatening his eastern provinces.

The first successors to Cyrus conquered Egypt, gathered new provinces in North Africa, and
extended the empire into India to the Indus River. They turned next against the Greeks who were
commercial rivals of Persian Phoenicia. In 513 BC a huge floating bridge was built across the
Bosphorus Strait, linking Asia and Europe. The Persian army took Thrace and Macedonia to cut off
grain to the Greeks, but could not subjugate the elusive Scythians. This was the peak of the
Persian Empire. The stage was set for the mighty struggle with the city-states of Greece that
lasted 50 years.

Economy

The early Persian economy was based on herding because the land was so poor for agriculture.
The Persians attributed their toughness to the meager lifestyle to which they had been acclimated
for generations.

The sudden acquisition of the Median Empire, Lydia, Babylon, Egypt, and gold-rich areas in India
made Persia an economic powerhouse. It controlled the rich agricultural areas of Mesopotomia,
the grasslands of Anatolia, the trade routes in every direction, and rich deposits of metals and
other resources. Great King Darius instituted many economic innovations and reforms:
systematized taxation; standardized weights, measures, and monetary units (the first successful
widespread use of coins); improved transportation routes, including the 1600-mile Royal Road
from Susa to Sardis and an early Suez Canal; royal trading ships; promotion of agriculture; a
banking system; and promotion of international trade.

89

Religion and culture

The Persian kings and nobility were Zoroastrians, a religion named after its founder, Zarathustra,
called Zoroaster in Greek. Zarathustra conceived his religion around 600 BC, and it had great
influence later on Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Zoroastrianism was monotheistic, centering on one supreme god who created everything material
and spiritual. The powers of good and evil worked on humans who had to choose constantly
between the two. An eternal afterlife of pleasure or torment were the possible results of god’s
judgment after death. These concepts of monotheism, good versus evil, free will, and posthumous
reward or punishment were a departure from the polytheistic religions prominent in the area
previously. These concepts greatly influenced religions that followed.

Government

The head of the Persian government was the king whose word was law. His authority was
extended by a bureaucracy led by Persian nobles, scribes who kept the records, a treasury that
collected taxes and funded building projects and armies, and a system of roads, couriers, and
signal stations that facilitated mail and trade. In the early years when the army was predominately
Persian, it capably preserved the internal and external peace.

Much of the empire was divided into provinces called satrapies, ruled by a satrap. All of Egypt was
usually a single satrapy, for example. The satraps were normally Persians or Medes to help insure
their loyalty. They ruled and lived like minor kings in their own palaces. Some satraps became
strong enough to threaten the king. Strong kings kept their satraps in check by holding close the
reins of the armies and the treasury.

Military

All Persian men to the age of 50 years were obligated to serve in the armies of the Persian
Empire. Greek historians report that boys were trained in riding, archery, hand-to-hand combat,
and mounted combat. At the age of 20 they were eligible for military service.

The army consisted mainly of four types of units: spearmen for infantry shock combat; foot
archers to act as skirmishers; light cavalry armed mainly with bows; and heavy cavalry that wore
some armor and carried spears. In the early years of the empire, the predominately Persian army
was highly motivated and responsive on the battlefield, making it a dangerous foe.

The elite of the Persian army was the Ten Thousand Immortals, so called because the unit was
always kept at a full strength of 10,000 men. The loss of any man to death or incapacitation was
immediately made good by promotion from another unit. One thousand of the Immortals were the
king’s personal bodyguards.

In its later years, the ratio of Persians to provincial levies declined. The hardened army of
disciplined and well-trained Persians was replaced by a mixture of formations, weapons, and
methods. These troops lacked the discipline of the Persians and proved difficult to maneuver and
employ on the battlefield.

90 Chapter 7: Persian Culture

Decline and fall

The Persian Empire peaked around 500 BC, although the seeds of its decline were planted earlier.
A recurring problem was court intrigue and ill-defined rules for succession. The death of a king
often triggered a scramble for the throne that exhausted the treasury, eroded morale, and
loosened the governmental hold on the provinces. Wasteful spending led to inflation and
unpopular tax increases. Disputes in the provinces, usually over taxes, were often settled brutally,
further increasing dissatisfaction. Five of the six
kings that followed Xerxes’ death in 464 BC
were weak leaders that held the empire together
only by increasingly harsh measures.

The Greeks and Persians had been on a collision
course for many years when conflict began
between the two cultures in 499 BC. Despite
what appeared to be overwhelming strength and
economic resources, the Persians failed to
defeat the Greeks in 50 years of war on land and
sea. The Greeks, though victorious, were not
capable immediately of carrying the war into
Persia.

Following the Greco-Persian Wars, the weak
Persian kings concentrated on maintaining their
ever more tenuous hold on the empire.
Recurring revolts in outlying provinces,
especially Parthia, Lydia, and Egypt, weakened
the economy and military. Before the empire
could dissolve from within, it was dispatched by
Alexander the Great in an amazingly short period
of time. Alexander invaded in 334 BC, captured Lydia by 333, took Egypt in 332, and became king
of Persia in 331.

This relief sculpture depicts nobles in attendance to see the
Persian King. From the stairway to the audience hall at the palace
built by Darius I at Persepolis, c. 520 BC.

Legacy

The Persians are best remembered in the West as the antagonists in the dramatic Greco-Persian
Wars, from which so much history has been preserved. The most famous events from this period
are the bridging of the Hellespont, land battles at Marathon, Thermopylae, and Platea, the great
sea battle at Salamis, and the sacking of Athens. Most of this history is biased, however, because
we have mainly the Greek accounts to study.

The Persians are also remembered in several Biblical accounts for the tolerance of their wise early
kings and the decadence of their later courts. Cyrus the Great is remembered especially for
freeing the Hebrews held prisoner in Babylon when he took that city and allowing them to return to
Israel.

The greatest legacy of the Persians was the aggregation and mixture of Asia and African cultures.
Most of the advances of civilization to that point had come from these areas. This cultural gift was
preserved by the Persians and passed on first to the Greeks and then to Europe and the West.

91

Phoenician culture (1200 to 146 BC)

There was never a country or empire
called “Phoenicia.” The historical name
of this culture was coined by the
Greeks and was not their own. The
name Phoenicia derives from the Greek
word phoenix, meaning in this case a
dark red or purple-brown color. The

5000BC 4000BC 3000BC 2000BC 1000BC 0AD 800AD

Sumerian

Egyptian
shang

Greek
Hittite
Babylonian

Phoenicians were renowned for their
cloth dyes, especially an expensive
purple one popular with royalty.
Because Greek language and writings

Tool Age Bronze Age Iron Age

were preserved in abundance, versus
Phoenician texts which are very scant, the name stuck.

Location

The Phoenicians appeared on the historical scene
around 1200 BC, a time when most of the civilized
world was being overrun by barbarians. In the political
and military void of a 400-year ancient dark age, this
small group of traders were able to prosper and
gradually expand their influence. Instead of acquiring a
physical empire of contiguous lands, they gradually
built, instead, a large trading and colonial network from
their home base of a few independent cities along the
coast of what is now Lebanon.

Minoan

Assyrian
Phoenician

Ancient Choson

lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll llllll

Persian

lllll

Yamato

These coastal cities were hemmed in on the land side by the Lebanon Mountains. The only
obvious opportunity for expansion and economic gain was by sea.

Rise to power

Prior to the catastrophe of 1200 BC, Canaanite traders had been restricted to perhaps the
Levantine coast, Egypt, and the southern coast of Anatolia. The Minoans on Crete blocked
entrance into the Aegean, controlled all trade in that area, and perhaps even controlled trade
further west. The Canaanite coastal towns were usually controlled by Egypt, and one of their
principal businesses was providing wood (the cedars of Lebanon) to the Nile region.

The Minoan civilization was destroyed in 1200 BC, removing most of the constraints on
Mediterranean and Aegean sea trading by others. The Phoenicians were the most aggressive of
those attempting to fill the void. Their cities were well-positioned for this enterprise by being
located literally in the center of the known world. The Aegean, Mesopotamia, and Egypt were all

92 Chapter 7: Phoenician Culture

They were the remnants of the Canaanites, a Semitic
people who occupied city-states in this region prior to
1200 BC. The most important of their early cities were
Tyre, Sidon, Berytus (modern Beirut), and Byblos.

roughly equidistant to the west, south, and east. For any of the three regions to trade with
another, the easiest trade route was through the Phoenician cities.

By the ninth century BC, the ancient dark age was nearing an end. The Phoenicians were growing
rich as traders and this attracted enemies, principally the Assyrians. In the face of repeated
assaults or heavy tribute payments at the least, the Tyrians adopted the strategy of establishing
colonies to the west. Colonies were removed from the grasp of the Assyrians and also helped
with the exploitation of metals and trade in the western Mediterranean.

The most important Phoenician colony was at Carthage, established around 700 BC. Other
important colonies were in Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, and Spain (modern Cadiz and Cartagena).
Over the next 500 years Carthage grew rapidly in size and power. Most of its wealth came from
the ore mines of Spain. Carthage fought for control of the western Mediterranean with the Greeks
first and then the Romans.

Economy

The early Phoenician economy was built on timber sales, wood working, and cloth dyeing. Dyes
ranging in color from a pink to a deep purple were made from the rotting gland of a sea snail.
Gradually the Phoenician city-states became centers of maritime trade and manufacturing. Having
limited natural resources, they imported raw materials and fashioned them into more valuable
objects that could be shipped profitably, such as jewelry, metalwork, furniture, and housewares.
They borrowed techniques and styles from all corners of the world that they touched as traders.

While exploring the western Mediterranean, they either discovered large metal deposits in Spain
or took them from Greeks who may have been there first. By fortifying sites on Sicily and North
Africa, they effectively denied other traders access to the riches of Spain, the west African coast
(gold, exotic woods, and slaves), and Britain (tin, a crucial strategic resource required to make
bronze).

Religion and culture

Phoenician religion was polytheistic and their gods required continual sacrifices to forestall
disaster, especially Baal, the god of storms. No significant Phoenician temple has yet been
discovered, but most of their ancient cities lie buried under modern cities. The Bible recounts
human sacrifices by the Phoenicians but this practice was eventually stopped. It carried on in
Carthage, however. A cemetery outside of Carthage was found to contain thousands of urns of
infants sacrificed to the gods. Noble families of Carthage got into the habit of substituting animals
and slaves for their children, but following a military disaster in 320 BC, 500 infants from the best
families were sacrificed.

Early Phoenician culture was influenced to a large degree by their Semitic origins and Semitic
neighbors. Their later culture was heavily influenced by the Greeks. There are few objects known
today that are clearly Phoenician.

One of their lasting contributions to civilization was a proto-alphabet where each letter
represented a consonant. This cut down significantly the number of symbols required to make
written words. When written, the vowels were implied. Later advances by the Greeks added
symbols for vowel sounds, creating the first true alphabet.

93

Military

When the Phoenicians began competing with the Greeks for trade and colonies, the contest led to
construction of the first ships built expressly for war. These were rowed galleys armed with a ram
at the front and marines for boarding. Sea warfare grew in importance during the fifth century
when Persia fought the Greek city-states for control of the Aegean, western Anatolia, and eastern
Mediterranean. By this time the Phoenician cities were under control of Persia. Phoenician ships
made up the bulk of the Persian fleet that was defeated at Salamis in 480 BC. Phoenician galleys
of the time were larger and less maneuverable than their Greek counterparts, and this was a fatal
shortcoming in restricted waters.

The Carthaginian navy dominated the early Punic Wars with Rome, but the Romans captured a
Carthaginian ship that went aground and built duplicates. The Romans eventually cleared the
Mediterranean of Carthaginian ships and carried the wars to a successful conclusion in North
Africa.

The Carthaginians had the only significant land army that can be considered Phoenician in
derivation. Their greatest general was Hannibal, who invaded Italy from Spain, passing the Alps in
winter with his army and elephants. Most of his troops were Celts enlisted from Spain and Gaul.
One strength of his army was cavalry from North Africa that was usually able to drive off the
Roman cavalry, surround the Roman infantry, and help annihilate it. The Romans defeated Hannibal
eventually, not by fighting him, but by attacking where he wasn’t—Spain first, and then North
Africa.

Decline and fall

The Phoenician home cities were periodically under the thumb of one eastern conqueror after
another from roughly 900 to 332 BC. They were never strong enough to hold off the powerful
armies from Assyria, then Babylon, and then Persia, although they were often rich enough to buy
them off. In 332 BC Alexander the Great took them one by one, ending their on-again, off-again
independence. They became Greek cities and lost their identity as Phoenician for good.

The Carthaginians lasted another 200 years. Having held off Greek expansion past Sicily
successfully for many centuries, they met their match in the more populous and better organized
Romans. At the end of the Punic Wars in 146 BC, the people of Carthage were carried off to
slavery and the city was destroyed.

Legacy

The Phoenician tradition as traders carried on in Lebanon down through the years to modern
times, regardless of who was in political control. Phoenicians are also recalled as great mariners.
They are believe to have been the first civilized culture to reach Britain and the Azores. There is
evidence that Phoenicians circumnavigated Africa on commission by the Egyptians around 600
BC. There is some questionable evidence that they reached the New World.

Their most important contribution was their revised alphabet, which they spread around the known
world. When further refined and spread by the Greeks and Romans, it became the alphabet used
today by most western cultures.

94 Chapter 7: Phoenician Culture

Shang culture (1800 to 1000 BC)

5000BC 4000BC 3000BC 2000BC 1000BC 0AD 800AD

Sumerian

Egyptian
shang

Greek
Hittite
Babylonian

Tool Age Bronze Age Iron Age

Minoan

Assyrian
Phoenician

Ancient Choson

lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll llllll

Persian

lllll

Yamato

China has been a mystery to much of
the world since word of its existence
first spread west in ancient times. It
was isolated first by geography, and
then by a conscious policy on the
part of its rulers. It was thought to be
one of the oldest civilizations but
modern archaeology and research
has revealed that the civilizations on
Crete, in Egypt, and in Mesopotamia
predate it significantly.

China encompassed a number of fertile river valleys, especially the Huang Ho (Yellow) and
Yangtze, that were ideal sites for agriculture. New technologies spread gradually from the west
and the first Chinese farming communities appeared along these rivers around 5000 BC. Although
all ancient civilizations eventually shared a common threshold of agricultural and technological
knowledge, the relative isolation of China allowed it to form a unique culture. The Chinese
distinguished their civilization by being first to achieve many important advancements.

Capital

The first recognized dynasty of Chinese kings is that of
the Shang, who were located in the north along the
Huang Ho River. Their principal city was An-yang,
southwest of modern Beijing. The Chou dynasty
overthrew a decadent Shang king and ruled for 400
years from the city of Hao in the northwest province of
Shensi. When barbarians from the north sacked Hao,
the Chou capital was moved east to Loyang. Although
the Chou dynasty soon lost control of most of China, it
continued to rule a state of varying size from its central
position until 221 BC. In 221 BC China was unified by
the Ch’in, from whom the country gets its modern
name. A new capital was built at Hsien-Yang, also
southwest of modern Beijing.

Rise to power

The Shang dynasty ruled over a conglomeration of northwestern Chinese feudal territories from
1766 to 1027 BC. The remainder of the country was made up of territories that the Shang could
not reach or influence. In 1027 BC a particularly decadent Shang ruler lost control of the kingdom
and succumbed to either revolt or the deliberate attack from the more western province of Chou.
A Chou dynasty established itself and then expanded its control to the middle and southern areas
of China over the next 400 years. With the help of a deposed queen, barbarians from the north
invaded Chou in 722 BC and sacked the capital.

95

The Chou dynasty relocated further to the east but never regained its dominance. The weakening
of the Chou led to the Spring and Autumn period (722 to 481 BC) that takes its name from the
title of a history of the era. New feudal kingdoms emerged and fought each other for territory,
strategic materials, and population centers. Warfare between the feudal territories and barbarians
to the north was incessant. By 500 BC, the 200 feudal territories of China had consolidated into
20 independent states.

A peace was arranged around 540 BC at a conference instigated by smaller states that had
suffered continual invasion and despoiling. Peace lasted 40 years and then hostilities resumed,
setting off the age known as the Warring States (481 to 221 BC). Seven major states emerged in
this period, but each was subjugated by the Ch’in, one after the other, beginning in 230 BC. In 221
BC Prince Cheng, the Tiger of Ch’in, proclaimed himself Shih Huang-ti—the first emperor of
China.

Economy

Early Chinese farmers grew millet and vegetables, and kept dogs and pigs. By 4000 BC rice was
being grown and became the most important food crop of Asia. By 2500 BC cattle, chickens,
sheep, and goats were raised, and water buffalo were being used to pull plows and wagons.

Despite the ravages of war, the ancient Chinese economy continued to grow and improve. An
elaborate road network improved communications and trade. Massive irrigation projects dammed
entire rivers, breaking them into small streams that carried water over extensive plains for rice
cultivation. Most impressive were canals connecting rivers or taking water into previously arid
regions. The first of these was built in 486 BC to supply troops. The eventual dominance of the
Ch’in was due in part to the rapid population growth that resulted from canal and irrigation projects
that dramatically increased food production.

Bronze did not reach China until around 1500 BC, and iron followed in the sixth century BC.
Another advantage of the Ch’in was their iron deposits and iron industry. Iron tools were more
efficient and iron weapons gave their soldiers an advantage in battle. The Chinese were casting
iron seventeen centuries before that technology was achieved in Europe, and iron-making was a
key factor in the shaping of their society.

China was unique to the ancient world for its general lack of slavery and a large peasant class of
land owners. The reasons for this are not fully understood. These two conditions probably
contributed to the enormous food production and population that China supported.

Religion and culture

The religion of ancient China was dominated by ancestor worship. Kings traced their ancestry
back directly to Shang-Ti, the ancestor and founder of the people, and the ruler of the natural
world. Shang-Ti and deceased forebears were petitioned by sacrifices for guidance in all aspects
of life. Political power was linked to the spiritual. The ruler was the Son of Heaven and ensured the
welfare of the people. These ancient beliefs were modified eventually into a state religion by two
competing philosophies that developed around the sixth century BC in response to growing
dissatisfaction with feudalism.

The oldest of these philosophies was Taoism, based on a collection of profound sayings.
Conformity to the Tao was achieved by unassertive action and simplicity. Taoism urged a return to
a naturally sharing society that was cooperative, not acquisitive. A typical Taoism saying read “He
who feels punctured must have been a bubble.”

96 Chapter 7: Shang culture

The second and most influential philosophy was Confucianism, a more practical and socially aware
doctrine. This was a philosophy of honesty and cooperation in relationships based on loyalty to
principles. Virtue was acquired by self-cultivation and self-denial. The Confucian ideal was a
perfection of the human personality through sacrifice in deference to traditional values passed
down from one’s ancestors. Heaven was the reward of the dutiful descendant.

Government

The various dynasties of China ruled over a hierarchy of feudal states linked by kinship and
vassalage. Feudal society was supported by peasant farmers who produced a surplus of food and
provided unpaid labor.

Following the formation of the first empire in 221 BC, the long failing feudal society was replaced
by a new structure. The aristocracy were only relatives of the emperor. Four classes of society

shih

were ranked below them. The
the peasant farmers who paid taxes, labored on public works, and served in the armies. The
were the artisans, and the

shang

were lesser nobility, land-owners, and scholars. The

were the merchants.

nung

were

kung

Architecture

Ancient Chinese architecture was concerned primarily with building walls. Walls defended villages
and towns, but also divided towns into sections. Controlling access to sections of cities enhanced
the power of authorities. The earliest walls were built of earth tamped down between wooden slats
that held it in place. The use of earth
in this manner led to two major
characteristics of Chinese
architecture—walls did not usually
bear loads and roofs supported
generous overhangs to keep water
off the walls. Walls were improved
first with sun-dried bricks on their
facings and then with fire-baked
bricks by the end of the Warring
States period.

The Great Wall of China was
constructed following the unification
of 221 BC for two purposes. It was
intended first to keep out or
discourage attacks by mounted
barbarians from the north. It also was
an outlet for the labor of thousands
of men who had previously served in
the massive armies now made
unnecessary by the unification.

The Great Wall of China was built after the unification.
Construction started in 221 BC and was completed
c. 204 BC.

97

Military

The ancient Chinese fielded armies that at times dwarfed those seen previously in the Near and
Middle East. Casualties from a battle often numbered 100,000 or more according to records well
regarded today for accuracy. Professional armies were supplemented by large militia levies called
up for temporary service.

The most militaristic states were those to the north and northwest who were forced to become
proficient in war because of repeated attacks by mounted barbarians. Provinces in this region
learned to fight large field armies from neighboring states as well as the barbarian hordes. The
three dominant dynasties of ancient China originated in the northern provinces.

Chariot archers dominated the battlefields of the Bronze Age Shang era, but they were supplanted
by mounted archers and large infantry armies armed with iron weapons. An early technical
achievement was the crossbow, not seen elsewhere for many centuries. Crossbows were
manufactured in large quantities for the arming of the militia, as well as regular troops. This fact
influenced the widespread building of walls for protection. For reasons not known, armor was
made predominantly of wood and bamboo.

Decline and fall

The empire established in 221 AD was further modified by the former Han dynasty up to 9 AD. In
that year a usurper grabbed the throne and ruled for 16 years. Attempts to reform land ownership
failed, however, and the usurper was eventually beheaded. This period makes a convenient break
point in Chinese history, even though the empire continued to exist into the twentieth century AD.

Legacy

The principle legacy of ancient
China was its philosophy,
including the concepts of face,
ancestor worship, virtue, and
balance with nature (Yin­Yang), which continue to
shape its culture today. The
most recognizable physical
legacy is the Great Wall, the
only man-made object on
earth visible from space.

98 Chapter 7: Shang culture

Sumerian culture (5000 to 2230 BC)

5000BC 4000BC 3000BC 2000BC 1000BC 0AD 800AD

llllllllll

l

llllllllll

Sumerian

Egyptian
shang

Greek
Hittite
Babylonian

Tool Age Bronze Age Iron Age

Minoan

Assyrian
Phoenician

Ancient Choson

llllllllllllllllllllllllllllll

Persian

lllll

Yamato

The Sumerians were one of the
earliest civilizations. Their growth and
expansion was dependent on rich
river valley farmlands. They were not
as fortunate as others in terms of
mineral resources or strategic
position, however, and did not enjoy
the long existence of the Egyptians.
They are considered one of the most
important early cultures,

nevertheless, because of the many
advances attributed to them. Because their location was weak in terms of defense and poor in
terms of resources, they were forced to innovate. In many ways they were more important to
history because of their innovations than the much richer Egyptians.

Location

Sumer was located in southern Mesopotamia (meaning
”between the rivers”) where the Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers come together before flowing into the Persian
Gulf. By 5000 BC primitive farmers had come down to
the valley from the Zagros Mountains to the east. The
land was rich but baked hard in the summer sun after
the late spring river floods. The early settlers learned
how to control some of the flooding with dikes and how
to irrigate their summer fields. Early settlements at Ur,
Uruk, and Eridu grew into independent cities first and
then city-states.

Capital

As a conglomeration of city-states, there was no clear
capital for the Sumerians because the center of power shifted from time to time. The cities of Ur,
Lagash, Erech, Eridu, and Uruk were the most important.

Rise to power

From 5000 to 3000 BC, agricultural communities of Sumer gradually coalesced into city-states
along the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The peak of this city-state culture lasted from
2900 to 2400 BC.

The city-states of the river valley were relatively rich from food production, manufacturing, and
their position along important trade routes. This made them tempting targets when more powerful
and warlike neighbors came into existence to the north and east.

99

Economy

The Sumerians grew wheat, barley, peas, onions, turnips, and dates. They raised cattle and sheep,
fished, and hunted wildfowl along the river. Food was generally abundant and populations grew
accordingly.

There was no copper in the river valleys, but copper was found in the mountains to the east and
north. The Sumerians learned how to obtain copper from ore by 4000 BC and to make bronze by
3500 BC.

They traded food, cloth, and manufactured items for raw materials, such as timber, copper, and
stone. Their merchants traveled up the Tigris and Euphrates to trade with the people of Anatolia
and the Mediterranean coast. They also traded in the Persian Gulf for items from India and further
east.

Religion and culture

The Sumerians worshipped hundreds of gods, with each city having its own patron deity. The
principal gods were too busy to bother with the plight of individuals. For that reason, each
Sumerian worshipped a particular minor god or goddess who was expected to interact with the
major gods.

The Sumerians did not believe in an afterlife and were realistic about the limits of human
goodness. They accepted that although the gods were above question, they were not always kind.

The soul and center of each city-state was its temple to the patron god. The Sumerians believed
that the god owned the city-state. Part of the land was farmed directly for the god, often by
slaves. The remaining land was farmed by the temple staff or by farmers who paid rent to the
temple. Rents and offerings paid for temple operation and supported the poor.

100 Chapter 7: sumerian culture

Slaves were an important part of the community and were one objective of any military campaign.
Even locals could become slaves to satisfy debts. Slaves were allowed to work extra hours for
themselves and use any savings to buy their freedom.

Government

Each city in Sumer was ruled at first by a council of elders, although a war leader, called a
was selected to lead the army during conflict. Eventually the lugals assumed power as kings and
established dynasties.

Evidence suggests that the Sumerians may have taken the first steps toward democracy by
electing a representative assembly. This consisted of two houses—a senate of important citizens
and a lower house made up of those available for military duty.

Preserved clay tablets reveal that the Sumerians maintained courts of justice where people could
expect a fair trial. One table recorded the oldest murder trial in history.

Most of the food production and distribution was controlled through the temple. A noble class
arose based on land ownership, control of trade, and manufacturing. Most trade
and manufacturing was outside the temple’s control.

lugal

,

Architecture

The Sumerians were handicapped by having no easy access to stone or wood for
building. Sun-dried mud bricks were their main building material and this required
some ingenuity. They were the first to employ the arch, vault, and dome. Their
cities were completely enclosed by brick walls. Their most important buildings
were temples, built as large mounds called ziggurats. Through cycles of attack,
destruction, and restoration, the temples were rebuilt again and again at the same
site, gradually getting larger with each reincarnation. Mud bricks eroded and
crumbled much more quickly than stone, however, and little Sumerian architecture
survives.

Military

The key influence on the Sumerian military was their poor strategic position.
Natural obstacles for defense existed only on their borders to the west (desert)
and south (Persian Gulf). When more populous and powerful enemies appeared to
their north and east, the Sumerians were susceptible to attack.

Surviving artwork and archaeological remains indicate that the Sumerian soldiers used spears and
short swords of bronze. They wore bronze helmets and carried large shields. Their armies were
not particularly noted but records are sparse.

They engaged in siege warfare during their many inter-city wars. Mud brick walls did not stand
against determined attackers who had the time to pry out the bricks or pound them to dust.

The Sumerians invented chariots and were the first to use them in battle. These early chariots
were four-wheeled and pulled by onagers (wild ass), and were not as effective in battle as the later
two-wheeled design pulled by horses. Sumerian chariots may have served primarily as fast
transports, but surviving artwork suggests that spears or javelins were thrown from them.

Male statuette from the Abu
Temple. This is believed to be
Abu, the Sumerian god of
vegetation, c. 2600 BC.

101