FLIR Systems C2 User manual

User’s manual
FLIR Cx series

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User’s manual
FLIR Cx series

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US

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www.GlobalTestSupply.com

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Table of contents

1 Disclaimers ......... ..... ........................... ..... ........................... ..... ..... ..... 1

1.1 Legal disclaimer ......................................................................... 1

1.2 Usage statistics ..........................................................................1

1.3 Changes to registry .....................................................................1

1.4 U.S. Government Regulations........................................................1

1.5 Copyright .................................................................................. 1

1.6 Quality assurance ....................................................................... 1

1.7 Patents.....................................................................................1

1.8 EULA Terms .............................................................................. 1

1.9 EULA Terms .............................................................................. 2

2 Safety information .... ................................ ................................ ..... ......3

3 Notice to user ............. ..... ........................... ..... ..... ..... ......................... 6

3.1 User-to-user forums ....................................................................6

3.2 Calibration................................................................................. 6

3.3 Accuracy ..................................................................................6

3.4 Disposal of electronic waste..........................................................6

3.5 Training .................................................................................... 6

3.6 Documentation updates ............................................................... 6

3.7 Important note about this manual....................................................6

3.8 Note about authoritative versions....................................................7

4 Customer help ......... ................................ ................................ ..... ......8

4.1 General .................................................................................... 8

4.2 Submitting a question .................................................................. 9

4.3 Downloads ................................................................................ 9

5 Quick Start Guide . ..... ........................... ..... ........................... ..... ........ 10

5.1 Procedure ............................................................................... 10

6 Description.. ..... ................................ ................................ ................ 11

6.1 View from the front .................................................................... 11

6.2 View from the rear..................................................................... 11

6.3 Connector ............................................................................... 12

6.4 Screen elements ...................................................................... 12

6.5 Auto-orientation........................................................................ 12

6.6 Navigating the menu system ....................................................... 13

7 Operation .... ..... ................................ ..... ..... ..... ........................... ..... . 14

7.1 Charging the battery.................................................................. 14

7.2 Turning on and turning off the camera............................................ 14

7.3 Saving an image ....................................................................... 14

7.3.1 General........................................................................ 14

7.3.2 Image capacity .............................................................. 14

7.3.3 Naming convention......................................................... 14

7.3.4 Procedure .................................................................... 14

7.4 Recalling an image.................................................................... 14

7.4.1 General........................................................................ 14

7.4.2 Procedure .................................................................... 14

7.5 Deleting an image..................................................................... 15

7.5.1 General........................................................................ 15

7.5.2 Procedure .................................................................... 15

7.6 Deleting all images.................................................................... 15

7.6.1 General........................................................................ 15

7.6.2 Procedure .................................................................... 15

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Table of contents

7.7 Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter ................................... 16

7.7.1 General........................................................................ 16

7.8 Hiding measurement tools .......................................................... 16

7.8.1 Procedure .................................................................... 16

7.9 Changing the color palette .......................................................... 16

7.9.1 General........................................................................ 16

7.9.2 Procedure .................................................................... 16

7.10 Changing the image mode .......................................................... 16

7.10.1 General........................................................................ 16

7.10.2 Procedure .................................................................... 17

7.11 Changing the temperature scale mode .......................................... 18

7.11.1 General........................................................................ 18

7.11.2 When to use Lock mode .................................................. 18

7.11.3 Procedure .................................................................... 18

7.12 Setting the emissivity................................................................. 18

7.12.1 General........................................................................ 18

7.12.2 Procedure .................................................................... 18

7.13 Changing the reflected apparent temperature ................................. 19

7.13.1 General........................................................................ 19

7.13.2 Procedure .................................................................... 19

7.14 Changing the distance ............................................................... 19

7.14.1 General........................................................................ 19

7.14.2 Procedure .................................................................... 19

7.15 Performing a non-uniformity correction .......................................... 20

7.15.1 What is a non-uniformity correction?................................... 20

7.15.2 When to perform a non-uniformity correction ........................ 20

7.15.3 Procedure .................................................................... 20

7.16 Using the camera lamp .............................................................. 20

7.16.1 General........................................................................ 20

7.16.2 Procedure .................................................................... 20

7.17 Changing the settings ................................................................ 20

7.17.1 General........................................................................ 20

7.17.2 Procedure .................................................................... 21

7.18 Updating the camera ................................................................. 21

7.18.1 General........................................................................ 21

7.18.2 Procedure .................................................................... 21

8 Technical data ... ................................ ................................ ................ 23

8.1 Online field-of-view calculator ...................................................... 23

8.2 Note about technical data ........................................................... 23

8.3 Note about authoritative versions.................................................. 23

8.4 FLIR C2 .................................................................................. 24

9 Mechanical drawings ........................ ..... ..... ..... ..... ........................... .. 27

10 CE Declaration of conformity .............. ................................ ..... ..... ..... . 28

11 Cleaning the camera....... ..... ........................... ..... .............................. 29

11.1 Camera housing, cables, and other items....................................... 29

11.1.1 Liquids......................................................................... 29

11.1.2 Equipment.................................................................... 29

11.1.3 Procedure .................................................................... 29

11.2 Infrared lens ............................................................................ 29

11.2.1 Liquids......................................................................... 29

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Table of contents

11.2.2 Equipment.................................................................... 29

11.2.3 Procedure .................................................................... 29

12 Application examples....... ................................ ..... ........................... .. 30

12.1 Moisture & water damage ........................................................... 30

12.1.1 General........................................................................ 30

12.1.2 Figure.......................................................................... 30

12.2 Faulty contact in socket .............................................................. 30

12.2.1 General........................................................................ 30

12.2.2 Figure.......................................................................... 31

12.3 Oxidized socket........................................................................ 31

12.3.1 General........................................................................ 31

12.3.2 Figure.......................................................................... 31

12.4 Insulation deficiencies................................................................ 32

12.4.1 General........................................................................ 32

12.4.2 Figure.......................................................................... 32

12.5 Draft ...................................................................................... 33

12.5.1 General........................................................................ 33

12.5.2 Figure.......................................................................... 33

13 About FLIR Systems .... ..... ........................... ..... ........................... ..... . 35

13.1 More than just an infrared camera ................................................ 36

13.2 Sharing our knowledge .............................................................. 36

13.3 Supporting our customers........................................................... 37

13.4 A few images from our facilities .................................................... 37

14 Glossary .. ..... ........................... ..... ..... ..... ................................ ..... .... 38

15 Thermographic measurement techniques ...... ..... ........................... ..... . 41

15.1 Introduction ............................................................................ 41

15.2 Emissivity................................................................................ 41

15.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample...................................... 41

15.3 Reflected apparent temperature ................................................... 45

15.4 Distance ................................................................................. 45

15.5 Relative humidity ...................................................................... 45

15.6 Other parameters...................................................................... 45

16 History of infrared technology............ ..... ................................ ..... ..... .. 46

17 Theory of thermography.. ..... ........................... ..... .............................. 49

17.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 49

17.2 The electromagnetic spectrum..................................................... 49

17.3 Blackbody radiation................................................................... 49

17.3.1 Planck’s law .................................................................. 50

17.3.2 Wien’s displacement law.................................................. 51

17.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's law ................................................... 53

17.3.4 Non-blackbody emitters ................................................... 53

17.4 Infrared semi-transparent materials............................................... 55

18 The measurement formula......................... ................................ ..... .... 57

19 Emissivity tables .. ..... ........................... ..... ........................... ..... ........ 61

19.1 References.............................................................................. 61

19.2 Tables .................................................................................... 61

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Disclaimers

1.1 Legal disclaimer

All products manufactured by FLIR Systems are warranted against defective
materials and workmanship for a period of one (1) year from the delivery date
of the original purchase, provided such products have been under normal stor­age, use and service, and in accordance with FLIR Systems instruction.

Uncooled handheld infrared cameras manufactured by FLIR Systems are war­ranted against defective materials and workmanship for a period of two (2)
years from the delivery date of the original purchase, provided such products
have been under normal storage, use and service, and in accordance with
FLIR Systems instruction, and provided that the camera hasbeen registered
within 60 days of original purchase.

Detectors for uncooled handheld infrared cameras manufactured by FLIR Sys­tems are warranted against defective materials and workmanship for a period
of ten (10) years from the delivery date of the original purchase, provided such
products have been under normal storage, use and service, and in accordance
with FLIR Systems instruction, and provided that the camera has been regis­tered within 60 days of original purchase.

Products which are not manufactured by FLIR Systems but included in sys­tems delivered by FLIR Systems to the original purchaser, carry the warranty,if
any, of the particular supplier only. FLIR Systems has no responsibility whatso­ever for such products.

The warranty extends only to the original purchaser and is not transferable. It
is not applicable to any product which has been subjected to misuse, neglect,
accident or abnormal conditions of operation. Expendable parts are excluded
from the warranty.

In the case of a defect in a product covered by this warranty the product must
not be further used in order to prevent additional damage. The purchaser shall
promptly report any defect to FLIR Systems or this warranty will notapply.

FLIR Systems will, at its option, repair or replaceany such defective product
free of charge if, upon inspection, it proves to be defective in material or work­manship and provided that it is returned to FLIR Systems within the said one­year period.

FLIR Systems has no other obligation or liability for defects than those set forth
above.

No other warranty is expressed or implied. FLIR Systems specifically disclaims
the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose.

FLIR Systems shall not be liable for any direct, indirect, special, incidental or
consequential loss or damage, whether based on contract, tort or any other le­gal theory.

This warranty shall begoverned by Swedish law.
Any dispute, controversy or claim arising out of or in connection with this war-

ranty, shall be finally settled by arbitration in accordance with the Rules of the
Arbitration Institute of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce. The place of ar­bitration shall be Stockholm. The language to be used in the arbitral proceed­ings shall be English.

1.2 Usage statistics

FLIR Systems reserves the right to gather anonymous usage statistics to help
maintain and improve the quality of our software and services.

1.3 Changes to registry

The registry entry HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet
\Control\Lsa\LmCompatibilityLevel will be automatically changed to level 2 if
the FLIR Camera Monitor service detects a FLIR camera connected to the
computer with a USB cable. The modification will only be executed if the cam­era device implements a remote network service that supports network logons.

1.4 U.S. Government Regulations

This product may be subject to U.S. Export Regulations. Please send any in­quiries to [e-mail].

1.5 Copyright

© 2015, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reser ved worldwide. No parts of the soft­ware including source code may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed or
translated into any language or computer language in any form or by any
means, electronic, magnetic, optical, manual or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of FLIR Systems.

The documentation must not, in whole or part, be copied, photocopied, repro­duced, translated or transmitted to any electronic medium or machine read­able form without prior consent, in writing, from FLIR Systems.

Names and marks appearing on the products herein are either registered
trademarks or trademarks of FLIR Systems and/or its subsidiaries. All other
trademarks, trade names or company names referenced herein are used for
identification only and are the property of their respective owners.

1.6 Quality assurance

The Quality Management System under which these products are developed
and manufactured has been certified in accordance with the ISO 9001
standard.

FLIR Systems is committed to a policy of continuous development; therefore
we reserve the right to make changes and improvements on any of the prod­ucts without prior notice.

1.7 Patents

One or several of the following patents and/or design patents may apply to the
products and/or features. Additional pending patents and/or pending design
patents may also apply.

000279476-0001; 000439161; 000499579-0001; 000653423; 000726344;
000859020; 001106306-0001; 001707738; 001707746; 001707787;
001776519; 001954074; 002021543; 002058180; 002249953; 002531178;
0600574-8; 1144833; 1182246; 1182620; 1285345; 1299699;1325808;
1336775; 1391114; 1402918; 1404291; 1411581; 1415075; 1421497;
1458284; 1678485; 1732314; 2106017; 2107799; 2381417; 3006596;
3006597; 466540; 483782; 484155; 4889913; 5177595; 60122153.2;

602004011681.5-08; 6707044; 68657; 7034300; 7110035; 7154093;
7157705; 7237946; 7312822; 7332716; 7336823; 7544944; 7667198;
7809258 B2; 7826736; 8,153,971; 8,823,803; 8,853,631; 8018649 B2;
8212210 B2; 8289372; 8354639 B2; 8384783; 8520970; 8565547; 8595689;
8599262; 8654239; 8680468; 8803093; D540838; D549758; D579475;
D584755; D599,392; D615,113; D664,580; D664,581; D665,004; D665,440;
D677298; D710,424 S; D718801; DI6702302-9; DI6903617-9; DI7002221-6;
DI7002891-5; DI7002892-3; DI7005799-0; DM/057692; DM/061609; EP
2115696 B1; EP2315433; SE 0700240-5; US 8340414 B2; ZL

201330267619.5; ZL01823221.3; ZL01823226.4; ZL02331553.9;
ZL02331554.7; ZL200480034894.0; ZL200530120994.2; ZL200610088759.5;
ZL200630130114.4; ZL200730151141.4; ZL200730339504.7;
ZL200820105768.8; ZL200830128581.2; ZL200880105236.4;
ZL200880105769.2; ZL200930190061.9; ZL201030176127.1;
ZL201030176130.3; ZL201030176157.2; ZL201030595931.3;
ZL201130442354.9; ZL201230471744.3; ZL201230620731.8.

1.8 EULA Terms

• Youhave acquired a device(“INFRARED CAMERA”) that includes soft­ware licensed by FLIR Systems AB from Microsoft Licensing, GP or its af­filiates (“MS”). Those installed software products of MS origin, as well as
associated media, printed materials, and “online” or electronic documen­tation (“SOFTWARE”) are protected by international intellectual property
laws and treaties. The SOFTWARE is licensed, not sold. All rights
reserved.

• IF YOU DO NOTAGREE TOTHIS ENDUSER LICENSE AGREEMENT
(“EULA”), DO NOT USE THE DEVICE OR COPY THE SOFTWARE. IN­STEAD, PROMPTLYCONTACT FLIR Systems AB FOR INSTRUCTIONS
ON RETURN OF THE UNUSED DEVICE(S) FOR A REFUND. ANY USE

OF THE SOFTWARE, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO USE ON
THE DEVICE, WILL CONSTITUTE YOUR AGREEMENT TO THIS EU­LA (OR RATIFICATION OF ANY PREVIOUS CONSENT).

• GRANT OF SOFTWARE LICENSE. This EULA grants you the following
license:

• Youmay use the SOFTWAREonly on the DEVICE.

• NOT FAULT TOLERANT. THE SOFTWARE IS NOT FAULT TOLER-

ANT.FLIR Systems AB HAS INDEPENDENTLY DETERMINED
HOW TO USE THESOFTWARE IN THE DEVICE, AND MS HAS
RELIED UPON FLIR Systems AB TO CONDUCT SUFFICIENT
TESTING TO DETERMINE THAT THE SOFTWARE IS SUITABLE
FOR SUCH USE.

• NO WARRANTIES FOR THE SOFTWARE. THE SOFTWAREis

provided “AS IS” and with all faults. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO SAT­ISFACTORY QUALITY, PERFORMANCE, ACCURACY,AND EF­FORT (INCLUDING LACKOF NEGLIGENCE) IS WITH YOU.
ALSO, THERE IS NOWARRANTY AGAINST INTERFERENCE
WITH YOUR ENJOYMENT OF THE SOFTWARE OR AGAINST IN­FRINGEMENT.IF YOU HAVE RECEIVED ANY WARRANTIES RE-

GARDING THE DEVICE ORTHE SOFTWARE, THOSE
WARRANTIES DO NOT ORIGINATE FROM, AND ARE NOT
BINDING ON, MS.

• No Liability for Certain Damages. EXCEPTAS PROHIBITED BY

LAW,MS SHALL HAVE NO LIABILITY FOR ANY INDIRECT,SPE­CIAL, CONSEQUENTIAL OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES ARISING
FROM OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORM­ANCE OF THE SOFTWARE. THIS LIMITATION SHALL APPLY
EVEN IF ANY REMEDY FAILS OF ITS ESSENTIAL PURPOSE. IN
NO EVENT SHALL MS BE LIABLE FOR ANYAMOUNT IN EX­CESS OF U.S. TWO HUNDRED FIFTY DOLLARS (U.S.$250.00).

• Limitations on Reverse Engineering, Decompilation, and Dis-

assembly. Youmay not reverse engineer, decompile, or disassem-

ble the SOFTWARE, except and only to the extent that such activity
is expressly permitted by applicable law notwithstanding this
limitation.

• SOFTWARE TRANSFER ALLOWED BUT WITH RESTRICTIONS.

Youmay permanently transfer rights under this EULA only as part of
a permanent sale or transfer of the Device, and only if the recipient
agrees to this EULA. If the SOFTWARE is an upgrade, any transfer
must also include all prior versionsof the SOFTWARE.

• EXPORT RESTRICTIONS. You acknowledge that SOFTWARE is

subject to U.S. export jurisdiction. You agree to comply with all appli­cable international and national laws that apply to the SOFTWARE,
including the U.S. Export Administration Regulations, as well as
end-user, end-use and destination restrictions issued by U.S. and
other governments. For additional information see http://www.micro­soft.com/exporting/.

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Disclaimers1

1.9 EULA Terms

Qt4 Core and Qt4 GUI, Copyright ©2013 Nokia Corporation and FLIR Sys­tems AB. This Qt library is a free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or (at your op­tion) any later version. This library is distributed in the hope that it will be

useful, but WITHOUTANY WARRANTY;without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITYor FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
GNU Lesser General Public License, http://www.gnu.org/licenses/lgpl-2.1.html.
The source code for the libraries Qt4 Core and Qt4 GUI may be requested
from FLIR Systems AB.

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2

Safety information

WARNING

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not disassemble or do a modification to the battery. The battery contains safety and protection devices
which, if damage occurs, can cause the battery to become hot, or cause an explosion or an ignition.

WARNING

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

If there is a leak from the battery and you get the fluid in your eyes, do not rub your eyes. Flush well with
water and immediately get medical care. The battery fluid can cause injury to your eyes if you do not do
this.

WARNING

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not continue to charge the battery if it does not become charged in the specified charging time. If you
continue to charge the battery, it can become hot and cause an explosion or ignition. Injury to persons
can occur.

WARNING

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Only use the correct equipment to remove the electrical power from the battery. If you do not use the cor­rect equipment, you can decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery. If you do not use the
correct equipment, an incorrect flow of current to the battery can occur. This can cause the battery to be­come hot, or cause an explosion. Injury to persons can occur.

WARNING

Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on con­tainers before you use a liquid. The liquids can be dangerous. Injury to persons can occur.

CAUTION

Do not point the infrared camera (with or without the lens cover) at strong energy sources, for example,
devices that cause laser radiation, or the sun. This can have an unwanted effect on the accuracy of the
camera. It can also cause damage to the detector in the camera.

CAUTION

Do not use the camera in temperatures more than +50°C (+122°F), unless other information is specified
in the user documentation or technical data. High temperatures can cause damage to the camera.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not attach the batteries directly to a car’s cigarette lighter socket, unless FLIR Systems supplies a spe­cific adapter to connect the batteries to a cigarette lighter socket. Damage to the batteries can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not connect the positive terminal and the negative terminal of the battery to each other with a metal
object (such as wire). Damage to the batteries can occur.

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2

Safety information

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not get water or salt water on the battery, or permit the battery to become wet. Damage to the batteries
can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not make holes in the battery with objects. Damage to the battery can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not hit the battery with a hammer. Damage to the battery can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not put your foot on the battery, hit it or cause shocks to it. Damage to the battery can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not put the batteries in or near a fire, or into direct sunlight. When the battery becomes hot, the built-in
safety equipment becomes energized and can stop the battery charging procedure. If the battery be­comes hot, damage can occur to the safety equipment and this can cause more heat, damage or ignition
of the battery.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not put the battery on a fire or increase the temperature of the battery with heat. Damage to the battery
and injury to persons can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not put the battery on or near fires, stoves, or other high-temperature locations. Damage to the battery
and injury to persons can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not solder directly onto the battery. Damage to the battery can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not use the battery if, when you use, charge, or put the battery in storage, there is an unusual smell
from the battery, the battery feels hot, changes color, changes shape, or is in an unusual condition. Speak
with your sales office if one or more of these problems occurs. Damage to the battery and injury to per­sons can occur.

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2

Safety information

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Only use a specified battery charger when you charge the battery. Damage to the battery can occur if you
do not do this.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

The temperature range through which you can charge the battery is ±0°C to +45°C (+32°F to +113°F),
unless other information is specified in the user documentation or technical data. If you charge the battery
at temperatures out of this range, it can cause the battery to become hot or to break. It can also decrease
the performance or the life cycle of the battery.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

The temperature range through which you can remove the electrical power from the battery is -15°C to
+50°C (+5°F to +122°F), unless other information is specified in the user documentation or technical data.
If you operate the battery out of this temperature range, it can decrease the performance or the life cycle
of the battery.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

When the battery is worn, apply insulation to the terminals with adhesive tape or equivalent materials be­fore you discard it. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur if you do not do this.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install it. Damage to the battery can occur if you
do not do this.

CAUTION

Do not apply solvents or equivalent liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. Damage to the bat­tery and injury to persons can occur.

CAUTION

Be careful when you clean the infrared lens. The lens has an anti-reflective coating which is easily dam­aged. Damage to the infrared lens can occur.

CAUTION

Do not use too much force to clean the infrared lens. This can cause damage to the anti-reflective
coating.

NOTE

The encapsulation rating is only applicable when all the openings on the camera are sealed with their cor­rect covers, hatches, or caps. This includes the compartments for data storage, batteries, and
connectors.

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3

Notice to user

3.1 User-to-user forums

Exchange ideas, problems, and infrared solutions with fellow thermographers around the
world in our user-to-user forums. To go to the forums, visit:

http://www.infraredtraining.com/community/boards/

3.2 Calibration

We recommend that you send in the camera for calibration once a year. Contact your local
sales office for instructions on where to send the camera.

3.3 Accuracy

For very accurate results, we recommend that you wait 5 minutes after you have started
the camera before measuring a temperature.

3.4 Disposal of electronic waste

As with most electronic products, this equipment must be disposed of in an environmen­tally friendly way, and in accordance with existing regulations for electronic waste.

Please contact your FLIR Systems representative for more details.

3.5 Training

To read about infrared training, visit:

• http://www.infraredtraining.com

• http://www.irtraining.com

• http://www.irtraining.eu

3.6 Documentation updates

Our manuals are updated several times per year, and we also issue product-critical notifi­cations of changes on a regular basis.

To access the latest manuals and notifications, go to the Download tab at:
http://support.flir.com
It only takes a few minutes to register online. In the download area you will also find the lat-

est releases of manuals for our other products, as well as manuals for our historical and
obsolete products.

3.7 Important note about this manual

FLIR Systems issues generic manuals that cover several cameras within a model line.
This means that this manual may contain descriptions and explanations that do not apply

to your particular camera model.

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Notice to user3

3.8 Note about authoritative versions

The authoritative version of this publication is English. In the event of divergences due to
translation errors, the English text has precedence.

Any late changes are first implemented in English.

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4

Customer help

4.1 General

For customer help, visit:
http://support.flir.com

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4

Customer help

4.2 Submitting a question

To submit a question to the customer help team, you must be a registered user. It only
takes a few minutes to register online. If you only want to search the knowledgebase for
existing questions and answers, you do not need to be a registered user.

When you want to submit a question, make sure that you have the following information to
hand:

• The camera model

• The camera serial number

• The communication protocol, or method, between the camera and your device (for ex­ample, HDMI, Ethernet, USB, or FireWire)

• Device type (PC/Mac/iPhone/iPad/Android device, etc.)

• Version of any programs from FLIR Systems

• Full name, publication number, and revision number of the manual

4.3 Downloads

On the customer help site you can also download the following:

• Firmware updates for your infrared camera.

• Program updates for your PC/Mac software.

• Freeware and evaluation versions of PC/Mac software.

• User documentation for current, obsolete, and historical products.

• Mechanical drawings (in *.dxf and *.pdf format).

• Cad data models (in *.stp format).

• Application stories.

• Technical datasheets.

• Product catalogs.

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5

Quick Start Guide

5.1 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Charge the battery for approximately 1.5 hours, using the FLIR power supply.

2. Push the On/off button

3. Aim the camera toward your target of interest.

4. Push the Save button to save an image.

(Optional steps)

5. Install FLIR Tools on your computer.

6. Start FLIR Tools.

7. Connect the camera to your computer, using the USB cable.

8. Import the images into FLIR Tools.

9. Create a PDF report in FLIR Tools.

to turn on the camera.

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6

Description

6.1 View from the front

1. Camera lamp.

2. Digital camera lens.

3. Infrared lens.

4. Attachment point.

6.2 View from the rear

1. On/off button.

2. Save button.

3. Camera screen.

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Description6

6.3 Connector

The purpose of this USB Micro-B connector is the following:

• Charging the battery using the FLIR power supply.

• Moving images from the camera to a computer for further analysis in FLIR Tools.

NOTE

Install FLIR Tools on your computer before you move the images.

6.4 Screen elements

1. Main menu toolbar.

2. Submenu toolbar.

3. Result table.

4. Status icons.

5. Temperature scale.

6. Spotmeter.

6.5 Auto-orientation

The camera has an auto-orientation feature, which means that the camera automatically
adjusts the measurement information on the display to the vertical or horizontal position of
the camera.

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Description6

NOTE

The auto-orientation feature is enabled by a setting. Select Settings > Device settings > Auto orientation
> On.

6.6 Navigating the menu system

The camera has a touch screen. You can use your index finger or a stylus pen specially
designed for capacitive touch usage to navigate the menu system.

Tap the camera screen to bring up the menu system.

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7

Operation

7.1 Charging the battery

Follow this procedure:

1. Connect the FLIR power supply to a wall outlet.

2. Connect the power supply cable to the USB connector on the camera.

7.2 Turning on and turning off the camera

• Push the On/off button

• Push and hold the On/off button
onds) to put the camera in standby mode. The camera then automatically turns off after
2 hours.

• Push and hold the On/off button

7.3 Saving an image

7.3.1 General

You can save images to the internal camera memory.
The camera saves both a thermal image and a visual image at the same time.

to turn on the camera.

until the screen goes off (for less than 5 sec-

for more than 5 seconds to turn off the camera.

7.3.2 Image capacity

Approximately 500 images can be saved to the internal camera memory.

7.3.3 Naming convention

The naming convention for images is FLIRxxxx.jpg, where xxxx is a unique counter.

7.3.4 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. To save an image, push the Save button.

7.4 Recalling an image

7.4.1 General

When you save an image, it is stored in the internal camera memory. To display the image
again, you can recall it from the internal camera memory.

7.4.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Images

3. To view the previous or next image, do one of the following:

• Swipe left or right.

. This displays an image in the image archive.

• Tap the left arrow

4. To switch between a thermal image and a visual image, swipe up or down.

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or the right arrow .

14

7

Operation

5. Tap the camera screen. This displays a toolbar.

• Select Full screen
normal views.

• Select Thumbnails
thumbnails, swipe up/down. To display an image, tap its thumbnail.

• Select Delete

• Select Information

• Select Camera

7.5 Deleting an image

7.5.1 General

You can delete an image from the internal camera memory.

7.5.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Images

3. To display the previous or next image, do one of the following:

• Swipe left or right.

or Exit full screen to switch between the full screen and

to display the thumbnail overview. To scroll between the

to delete the image.

to display information about the image.

to return to live mode.

. This displays an image in the image archive.

• Tap the left arrow

4. When the image you want to delete is displayed, tap the camera screen. This displays
a toolbar.

5. On the toolbar, select Delete

6. In the dialog box, select Delete.

7. To return to live mode, tap the camera screen and select Camera

7.6 Deleting all images

7.6.1 General

You can delete all images from the internal camera memory.

7.6.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Settings

3. In the dialog box, select Device settings. This displays a dialog box.

4. In the dialog box, select Reset options. This displays a dialog box.

5. In the dialog box, select Delete all saved images. This displays a dialog box.

6. In the dialog box, select Delete.

7. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow
Save button once.

or the right arrow .

. This displays a dialog box.

.

. This displays a dialog box.

repeatedly. You can also push the

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7

Operation

7.7 Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter

7.7.1 General

You can measure a temperature using a spotmeter. This will display the temperature at the
position of the spotmeter on the screen.

7.7.1.1 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Measurement

3. On the submenu toolbar, select Center spot
The temperature at the position of the spotmeter will now be displayed in the top left

corner of the screen.

7.8 Hiding measurement tools

7.8.1 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Measurement

3. On the submenu toolbar, select No measurements

7.9 Changing the color palette

7.9.1 General

You can change the color palette that the camera uses to display different temperatures. A
different palette can make it easier to analyze an image.

7.9.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

. This displays a submenu toolbar.

.

. This displays a submenu toolbar.

.

2. Select Color

3. On the submenu toolbar, select the type of color palette:

• Iron.

• Rainbow.

• Rainbow HC.

• Gray.

7.10 Changing the image mode

7.10.1 General

The camera captures both thermal and visual images at the same time. By your choice of
image mode, you select which type of image to display on the screen.

The camera supports the following image modes:

• Thermal MSX (Multi Spectral Dynamic Imaging): The camera displays an infrared im-

age where the edges of the objects are enhanced with visual image details.

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. This displays a submenu toolbar.

16

7

Operation

• Thermal: The camera displays a fully infrared image.

• Digital camera: The camera displays only the visual image captured by the digital

camera.

To display a good fusion image (Thermal MSX mode), the camera must make adjustments
to compensate for the small difference in position between the digital camera lens and the
infrared lens. To adjust the image accurately, the camera requires the alignment distance
(i.e., the distance to the object).

7.10.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Image mode

3. On the submenu toolbar, select one of the following:

• Thermal MSX

. This displays a submenu toolbar.

.

• Thermal

• Digital camera

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.

.

17

7

Operation

4. If you have selected the Thermal MSX mode, also set the distance to the object by
doing the following:

• On the submenu toolbar, select Alignment distance

• In the dialog box, select the distance to the object.

7.11 Changing the temperature scale mode

7.11.1 General

The camera can operate in two different temperature scale modes:

• Auto mode: In this mode, the camera is continuously auto-adjusted for the best image

brightness and contrast.

• Lock mode: In this mode, the camera locks the temperature span and the temperature

level.

7.11.2 When to use Lock mode

A typical situation where you would use Lock mode is when looking for temperature
anomalies in two items with a similar design or construction.

For example, you have two cables, and you suspect that one is overheated. With the cam­era in Auto mode, direct the camera toward the cable that has a normal temperature, and
then activate Lock mode. When you then direct the camera, in Lock mode, toward the sus­pected overheated cable, that cable will appear in a lighter color in the thermal image if its
temperature is higher than the first cable.

If you instead use Auto mode, the color for the two items might appear the same despite
their temperature being different.

7.11.3 Procedure

To go between Auto mode and Lock mode, tap the top or bottom temperature value in the
temperature scale.

A gray padlock icon indicates that Lock mode is active.

. This displays a dialog box.

7.12 Setting the emissivity

7.12.1 General

To measure temperatures accurately, the camera must be aware of the type of surface you
are measuring. You can choose between the following surface properties:

• Matt.

• Semi-matt.

• Semi-glossy.

As an alternative, you can set a custom emissivity value.
For more information about emissivity, see section 15 Thermographic measurement tech-

niques, page 41.

7.12.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Settings

3. In the dialog box, select Measurement parameters. This displays a dialog box.

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. This displays a dialog box.

18

7

Operation

4. In the dialog box, select Emissivity. This displays a dialog box.

5. In the dialog box, select one of the following:

• Matt.

• Semi-matt.

• Semi-glossy.

• Custom value. This displays a dialog box where you can set a value.

6. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow
Save button once.

7.13 Changing the reflected apparent temperature

7.13.1 General

This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected by the object. If the emis­sivity is low and the object temperature significantly different from that of the reflected tem­perature, it will be important to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature
correctly.

For more information about the reflected apparent temperature, see section 15 Thermo-
graphic measurement techniques, page 41.

7.13.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Settings

3. In the dialog box, select Measurement parameters. This displays a dialog box.

4. In the dialog box, select Reflected temperature. This displays a dialog box where you
can set a value.

5. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow
Save button once.

7.14 Changing the distance

. This displays a dialog box.

repeatedly. You can also push the

repeatedly. You can also push the

7.14.1 General

The distance is the distance between the object and the front lens of the camera. This pa­rameter is used to compensate for the following two facts:

• That radiation from the target is absorbed by the atmosphere between the object and

the camera.

• That radiation from the atmosphere itself is detected by the camera.

For more information, see section 15 Thermographic measurement techniques, page 41.

7.14.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Settings

3. In the dialog box, select Measurement parameters. This displays a dialog box.

4. In the dialog box, select Distance. This displays a dialog box where you can set a
value.

5. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow
Save button once.

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. This displays a dialog box.

repeatedly. You can also push the

19

7

Operation

7.15 Performing a non-uniformity correction

7.15.1 What is a non-uniformity correction?

A non-uniformity correction (or NUC) is an image correction carried out by the camera
software to compensate for different sensitivities of detector elements and other optical
and geometrical disturbances

1

.

7.15.2 When to perform a non-uniformity correction

The non-uniformity correction process should be carried out whenever the output image
becomes spatially noisy. The output can become spatially noisy when the ambient temper­ature changes (such as from indoors to outdoors operation, and vice versa).

7.15.3 Procedure

To perform a non-uniformity correction, tap and hold the

icon. The text Calibrating...

appears on the screen.

7.16 Using the camera lamp

7.16.1 General

You can use the camera lamp as a flashlight, or as a flash when taking an image.

7.16.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Lamp

.

3. Tap one of the following:

• Flash (to use the lamp as a flash when taking an image).

• On (to turn on the lamp and use it as a flashlight).

• Off (to turn off the lamp).

7.17 Changing the settings

7.17.1 General

You can change a variety of settings for the camera.
The Settings menu includes the following:

• Measurement parameters.

• Save options.

• Device settings.

7.17.1.1 Measurement parameters

• Emissivity.

• Reflected temperature.

• Distance.

1. Definition from the imminent international adoption of DIN 54190-3 (Non-destructive testing – Thermographic

testing – Part 3: Terms and definitions).

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7

Operation

7.17.1.2 Save options

• Photo as separate JPEG: When this menu command is selected, the digital photograph

from the visual camera is saved at its full field of view as a separate JPEG image. It
may be necessary to activate this option if you are not using the FLIR Tools software.

7.17.1.3 Device settings

• Language, time & units:

• Language.

• Temperature unit.

• Distance unit.

• Date & time.

• Date & time format.

• Reset options:

• Reset default camera mode.

• Reset device settings to factory default.

• Delete all saved images.

• Auto power off.

• Auto orientation.

• Display intensity.

• Camera information: This menu command displays various items of information about

the camera, such as the model, serial number, and software version.

7.17.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Settings

3. In the dialog box, tap the setting that you want to change.

4. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow repeatedly. You can also push the
Save button once.

7.18 Updating the camera

7.18.1 General

To take advantage of our latest camera firmware, it is important that you keep your camera
updated. You update your camera using FLIR Tools.

. This displays a dialog box.

7.18.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Start FLIR Tools.

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7

Operation

2. Start the camera.

3. Connect the camera to the computer using the USB cable.

4. FLIR Tools displays a welcome screen when the camera is identified. On the welcome
screen, click Check for updates.

You can also click Check for updates on the Help menu in FLIR Tools.

5. Follow the on-screen instructions.

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8

Technical data

8.1 Online field-of-view calculator

Please visit http://support.flir.com and click the photo of the camera series for field-of-view
tables for all lens–camera combinations.

8.2 Note about technical data

FLIR Systems reserves the right to change specifications at any time without prior notice.
Please check http://support.flir.com for latest changes.

8.3 Note about authoritative versions

The authoritative version of this publication is English. In the event of divergences due to
translation errors, the English text has precedence.

Any late changes are first implemented in English.

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Technical data8

8.4 FLIR C2

P/N: 72001-0101
Rev.: 22841

Imaging and optical data

NETD 100 mK
Field of view
Minimum focus distance

Focal length 1.54 mm (0.061 in.)

Spatial resolution (IFOV) 11 mrad

F-number 1.1
Image frequency 9 Hz

Focus Focus free

Detector data

Focal Plane Array Uncooled microbolometer

Spectral range

Detector pitch 17 µm

IR sensor size 80 × 60

41° × 31°

• Thermal: 0.15 m (0.49 ft.)

• MSX: 1.0 m (3.3 ft.)

7.5–14 µm

Image presentation

Display (color)

Display, aspect ratio 4:3

Auto orientation Yes
Touch screen Yes, capacitive

Image adjustment (alignment calibration) Yes

Image presentation modes

Infrared image Yes

Visual image Yes

MSX
Gallery Yes

Measurement

Object temperature range –10°C to +150°C (14 to 302°F)

Accuracy ±2°C (±3.6°F) or 2%, whichever is greater, at 25°C

Measurement analysis

Spotmeter On/off

Emissivity correction

Measurements correction

• 3.0 in.

• 320 × 240 pixels

Yes

(77°F) nominal.

Yes; matt/semi-matt/semi-glossy + custom value

• Emissivity

• Reflected apparent temperature

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Technical data8

Set-up

Color palettes

Set-up commands Local adaptation of units, language, date and time

Languages

Lamp

Output power 0.85 W

Field of view

Service functions

Camera software update Using FLIR Tools

• Iron

• Rainbow

• Rainbow HC

• Gray

formats
Arabic, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish,

French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japa­nese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese,
Russian, Simpl. Chinese, Spanish, Swedish, Trad.
Chinese, Turkish.

60°

Storage of images

Storage media Internal memory store at least 500 sets of images

Image file format

Video streaming

Non-radiometric IR video streaming Yes

Visual video streaming Yes

Digital camera

Digital camera 640 × 480 pixels

Digital camera, focus Fixed focus

Data communication interfaces

USB, connector type USB Micro-B: Data transfer to and from PC

USB, standard USB 2.0

Power system

Battery type Rechargeable Li-ion polymer battery

Battery voltage 3.7 V

Battery operating time 2 h

Charging system Charged inside the camera

Charging time

External power operation

Power management Automatic shut-down

• Standard JPEG

• 14-bit measurement data included

1.5 h

• AC adapter, 90–260 VAC input

• 5 V output to camera

Environmental data

Operating temperature range –10°C to +50°C (14 to 122°F)

Storage temperature range –40°C to +70°C (–40 to 158°F)

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Technical data8

Environmental data

Humidity (operating and storage) IEC 60068-2-30/24 h 95% relative humidity +25°C

Relative humidity 95% relative humidity +25°C to +40°C (+77°F to

EMC

Magnetic fields EN 61000-4-8

Battery regulations UL 1642

Encapsulation Camera housing and lens: IP 40 (IEC 60529)

Shock 25 g (IEC 60068-2-27)

Vibration

to +40°C (+77°F to +104°F) / 2 cycles

+104°F) non condensing

• WEEE 2012/19/EC

• RoHs 2011/65/EC

• C-Tick

• EN 61000-6-3

• EN 61000-6-2

• FCC 47 CFR Part 15 Class B

2 g (IEC 60068-2-6)

Physical data

Weight (incl. Battery) 0.13 kg (0.29 lb.)

Size (L × W × H) 125 × 80 × 24 mm (4.9 × 3.1 × 0.94 in.)

Tripod mounting No

Housing material

Color Black and gray

Shipping information

Packaging, type

List of contents

Packaging, weight 0.53 kg (1.17 lb.)

Packaging, size 175 × 115 × 75 mm (6.9 × 4.5 × 3.0 in.)

EAN-13 4743254001961
UPC-12
Country of origin Estonia

• PC and ABS, partially covered with TPE

• Aluminum

Cardboard box

• Infrared camera

• Lanyard

• Power supply/charger with EU, UK, US, CN
and Australian plugs

• Printed getting started guide

• USB memory stick with documentation

• USB cable

845188010614

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4,9

124,5

mm

3,1

78,7

mm

1,02

25,9

mm

Optical axis

1,78

45,3

mm

0,43

11

mm

1,31

33,4

mm

0,91

23,1

mm

0,58

14,8

mm

Camera with build-in IR lens f=1,54mm

Visual Optical axis

IR Optical axis

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 632 54

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

F

C

E

G

D

A

B

-

Scale

1:1

B

Size

Modified

R&D Thermography

MABR

Basic Dimensions Flir Cx

T128439

1(1)

A2

Denomination

Drawn by

Check

Size

Drawing No.

Sheet

7

© 2012, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide. No part of this drawing may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,

without written permission from FLIR Systems, Inc. Specifications subject to change without further notice. Dimensional data is based on nominal values. Products may be subject to regional market considerations. License procedures may apply.

Product may be subject to US Export Regulations. Please refer to [e-mail] with any questions. Diversion contrary to US law is prohibited.

2014-12-18

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Cleaning the camera

11.1 Camera housing, cables, and other items

11.1.1 Liquids

Use one of these liquids:

• Warm water

• A weak detergent solution

11.1.2 Equipment

A soft cloth

11.1.3 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Soak the cloth in the liquid.

2. Twist the cloth to remove excess liquid.

3. Clean the part with the cloth.

CAUTION

Do not apply solvents or similar liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. This can cause damage.

11.2 Infrared lens

11.2.1 Liquids

Use one of these liquids:

• A commercial lens cleaning liquid with more than 30% isopropyl alcohol.

• 96% ethyl alcohol (C

11.2.2 Equipment

Cotton wool

11.2.3 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Soak the cotton wool in the liquid.

2. Twist the cotton wool to remove excess liquid.

3. Clean the lens one time only and discard the cotton wool.

WARNING

Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on con­tainers before you use a liquid: the liquids can be dangerous.

CAUTION

2H5

OH).

• Be careful when you clean the infrared lens. The lens has a delicate anti-reflective coating.

• Do not clean the infrared lens too vigorously. This can damage the anti-reflective coating.

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12

Application examples

12.1 Moisture & water damage

12.1.1 General

It is often possible to detect moisture and water damage in a house by using an infrared
camera. This is partly because the damaged area has a different heat conduction property
and partly because it has a different thermal capacity to store heat than the surrounding
material.

NOTE

Many factors can come into play as to how moisture or water damage will appear in an infrared image.
For example, heating and cooling of these parts takes place at different rates depending on the material

and the time of day. For this reason, it is important that other methods are used as well to check for mois­ture or water damage.

12.1.2 Figure

The image below shows extensive water damage on an external wall where the water has
penetrated the outer facing because of an incorrectly installed window ledge.

12.2 Faulty contact in socket

12.2.1 General

Depending on the type of connection a socket has, an improperly connected wire can re­sult in local temperature increase. This temperature increase is caused by the reduced
contact area between the connection point of the incoming wire and the socket , and can
result in an electrical fire.

NOTE

A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another. For this reason, differ­ent faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared image.

Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between wire and socket, or from differ­ence in load.

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Application examples12

12.2.2 Figure

The image below shows a connection of a cable to a socket where improper contact in the
connection has resulted in local temperature increase.

12.3 Oxidized socket

12.3.1 General

Depending on the type of socket and the environment in which the socket is installed, ox­ides may occur on the socket's contact surfaces. These oxides can lead to locally in­creased resistance when the socket is loaded, which can be seen in an infrared image as
local temperature increase.

NOTE

A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another. For this reason, differ­ent faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared image.

Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between a wire and socket, or from dif­ference in load.

12.3.2 Figure

The image below shows a series of fuses where one fuse has a raised temperature on the
contact surfaces against the fuse holder. Because of the fuse holder’s blank metal, the
temperature increase is not visible there, while it is visible on the fuse’s ceramic material.

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Application examples12

12.4 Insulation deficiencies

12.4.1 General

Insulation deficiencies may result from insulation losing volume over the course of time
and thereby not entirely filling the cavity in a frame wall.

An infrared camera allows you to see these insulation deficiencies because they either
have a different heat conduction property than sections with correctly installed insulation,
and/or show the area where air is penetrating the frame of the building.

NOTE

When you are inspecting a building, the temperature difference between the inside and outside should be
at least 10°C (18°F). Studs, water pipes, concrete columns, and similar components may resemble an in­sulation deficiency in an infrared image. Minor differences may also occur naturally.

12.4.2 Figure

In the image below, insulation in the roof framing is lacking. Due to the absence of insula­tion, air has forced its way into the roof structure, which thus takes on a different character­istic appearance in the infrared image.

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Application examples12

12.5 Draft

12.5.1 General

Draft can be found under baseboards, around door and window casings, and above ceil­ing trim. This type of draft is often possible to see with an infrared camera, as a cooler air­stream cools down the surrounding surface.

NOTE

When you are investigating draft in a house, there should be sub-atmospheric pressure in the house.
Close all doors, windows, and ventilation ducts, and allow the kitchen fan to run for a while before you
take the infrared images.

An infrared image of draft often shows a typical stream pattern. You can see this stream pattern clearly in
the picture below.

Also keep in mind that drafts can be concealed by heat from floor heating circuits.

12.5.2 Figure

The image below shows a ceiling hatch where faulty installation has resulted in a strong
draft.

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13

About FLIR Systems

FLIR Systems was established in 1978 to pioneer the development of high-performance
infrared imaging systems, and is the world leader in the design, manufacture, and market­ing of thermal imaging systems for a wide variety of commercial, industrial, and govern­ment applications. Today, FLIR Systems embraces five major companies with outstanding
achievements in infrared technology since 1958—the Swedish AGEMA Infrared Systems
(formerly AGA Infrared Systems), the three United States companies Indigo Systems, FSI,
and Inframetrics, and the French company Cedip.

Since 2007, FLIR Systems has acquired several companies with world-leading expertise
in sensor technologies:

• Extech Instruments (2007)

• Ifara Tecnologías (2008)

• Salvador Imaging (2009)

• OmniTech Partners (2009)

• Directed Perception (2009)

• Raymarine (2010)

• ICx Technologies (2010)

• TackTick Marine Digital Instruments (2011)

• Aerius Photonics (2011)

• Lorex Technology (2012)

• Traficon (2012)

• MARSS (2013)

• DigitalOptics micro-optics business (2013)

Figure 13.1 Patent documents from the early 1960s

The company has sold more than 350,000 infrared cameras worldwide for applications
such as predictive maintenance, R & D, non-destructive testing, process control and auto­mation, and machine vision, among many others.

FLIR Systems has three manufacturing plants in the United States (Portland, OR, Boston,
MA, Santa Barbara, CA) and one in Sweden (Stockholm). Since 2007 there is also a

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13

About FLIR Systems

manufacturing plant in Tallinn, Estonia. Direct sales offices in Belgium, Brazil, China,
France, Germany, Great Britain, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Korea, Sweden, and the USA—
together with a worldwide network of agents and distributors—support our international
customer base.

FLIR Systems is at the forefront of innovation in the infrared camera industry. We antici­pate market demand by constantly improving our existing cameras and developing new
ones. The company has set milestones in product design and development such as the in­troduction of the first battery-operated portable camera for industrial inspections, and the
first uncooled infrared camera, to mention just two innovations.

Figure 13.2 LEFT: Thermovision Model 661 from 1969. The camera weighed approximately 25 kg (55 lb.),
the oscilloscope 20 kg (44 lb.), and the tripod 15 kg (33 lb.). The operator also needed a 220 VAC generator
set, and a 10 L (2.6 US gallon) jar with liquid nitrogen. To the left of the oscilloscope the Polaroid attachment
(6 kg/13 lb.) can be seen. RIGHT: FLIR One, which was launched in January 2014, is a slide-on attachment
that gives iPhones thermal imaging capabilities. Weight: 90 g (3.2 oz.).

FLIR Systems manufactures all vital mechanical and electronic components of the camera
systems itself. From detector design and manufacturing, to lenses and system electronics,
to final testing and calibration, all production steps are carried out and supervised by our
own engineers. The in-depth expertise of these infrared specialists ensures the accuracy
and reliability of all vital components that are assembled into your infrared camera.

13.1 More than just an infrared camera

At FLIR Systems we recognize that our job is to go beyond just producing the best infrared
camera systems. We are committed to enabling all users of our infrared camera systems
to work more productively by providing them with the most powerful camera–software
combination. Especially tailored software for predictive maintenance, R & D, and process
monitoring is developed in-house. Most software is available in a wide variety of
languages.

We support all our infrared cameras with a wide variety of accessories to adapt your equip­ment to the most demanding infrared applications.

13.2 Sharing our knowledge

Although our cameras are designed to be very user-friendly, there is a lot more to thermog­raphy than just knowing how to handle a camera. Therefore, FLIR Systems has founded
the Infrared Training Center (ITC), a separate business unit, that provides certified training
courses. Attending one of the ITC courses will give you a truly hands-on learning
experience.

The staff of the ITC are also there to provide you with any application support you may
need in putting infrared theory into practice.

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About FLIR Systems

13.3 Supporting our customers

FLIR Systems operates a worldwide service network to keep your camera running at all
times. If you discover a problem with your camera, local service centers have all the equip­ment and expertise to solve it within the shortest possible time. Therefore, there is no need
to send your camera to the other side of the world or to talk to someone who does not
speak your language.

13.4 A few images from our facilities

Figure 13.3 LEFT: Development of system electronics; RIGHT: Testing of an FPA detector

Figure 13.4 LEFT: Diamond turning machine; RIGHT: Lens polishing

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14

Glossary

absorption (ab­sorption factor)

atmosphere The gases between the object being measured and the camera, nor-

autoadjust A function making a camera perform an internal image correction.
autopalette The IR image is shown with an uneven spread of colors, displaying

blackbody Totally non-reflective object. All its radiation is due to its own

blackbody
radiator

calculated at­mospheric
transmission

cavity radiator A bottle shaped radiator with an absorbing inside, viewed through the

color
temperature

conduction The process that makes heat diffuse into a material.
continuous

adjust

convection

dual isotherm An isotherm with two color bands, instead of one.
emissivity

(emissivity
factor)

emittance Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time and area

environment

estimated at­mospheric
transmission

external optics Extra lenses, filters, heat shields etc. that can be put between the

filter A material transparent only to some of the infrared wavelengths.
FOV Field of view: The horizontal angle that can be viewed through an IR

FPA Focal plane array: A type of IR detector.
graybody An object that emits a fixed fraction of the amount of energy of a

The amount of radiation absorbed by an object relative to the re­ceived radiation. A number between 0 and 1.

mally air.

cold objects as well as hot ones at the same time.

temperature.
An IR radiating equipment with blackbody properties used to calibrate

IR cameras.
A transmission value computed from the temperature, the relative hu-

midity of air and the distance to the object.

bottleneck.
The temperature for which the color of a blackbody matches a specif-

ic color.

A function that adjusts the image. The function works all the time,
continuously adjusting brightness and contrast according to the im­age content.

Convection is a heat transfer mode where a fluid is brought into mo­tion, either by gravity or another force, thereby transferring heat from
one place to another.

The amount of radiation coming from an object, compared to that of a
blackbody. A number between 0 and 1.

2

(W/m

)

Objects and gases that emit radiation towards the object being
measured.

A transmission value, supplied by a user, replacing a calculated one

camera and the object being measured.

lens.

blackbody for each wavelength.

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Glossary

IFOV Instantaneous field of view: A measure of the geometrical resolution

of an IR camera.

image correc­tion (internal or
external)

infrared Non-visible radiation, having a wavelength from about 2–13 μm.
IR infrared

isotherm A function highlighting those parts of an image that fall above, below

isothermal
cavity

Laser LocatIR An electrically powered light source on the camera that emits laser ra-

laser pointer An electrically powered light source on the camera that emits laser ra-

level The center value of the temperature scale, usually expressed as a

manual adjust A way to adjust the image by manually changing certain parameters.
NETD Noise equivalent temperature difference. A measure of the image

noise Undesired small disturbance in the infrared image
object

parameters

object signal A non-calibrated value related to the amount of radiation received by

palette The set of colors used to display an IR image.
pixel
radiance Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and

radiant power Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time (W)
radiation The process by which electromagnetic energy, is emitted by an object

radiator A piece of IR radiating equipment.
range

reference
temperature

reflection The amount of radiation reflected by an object relative to the received

A way of compensating for sensitivity differences in various parts of
live images and also of stabilizing the camera.

or between one or more temperature intervals.
A bottle-shaped radiator with a uniform temperature viewed through

the bottleneck.

diation in a thin, concentrated beam to point at certain parts of the ob­ject in front of the camera.

diation in a thin, concentrated beam to point at certain parts of the ob­ject in front of the camera.

signal value.

noise level of an IR camera.

A set of values describing the circumstances under which the meas­urement of an object was made, and the object itself (such as emis­sivity, reflected apparent temperature, distance etc.)

the camera from the object.

Stands for picture element. One single spot in an image.

angle (W/m

or a gas.

The current overall temperature measurement limitation of an IR cam­era. Cameras can have several ranges. Expressed as two blackbody
temperatures that limit the current calibration.

A temperature which the ordinary measured values can be compared
with.

radiation. A number between 0 and 1.

2

/sr)

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14

Glossary

relative
humidity

saturation
color

span

spectral (radi­ant) emittance

temperature
difference, or
difference of
temperature.

temperature
range

temperature
scale

thermogram infrared image
transmission

(or transmit­tance) factor

transparent
isotherm

visual Refers to the video mode of a IR camera, as opposed to the normal,

Relative humidity represents the ratio between the current water va­pour mass in the air and the maximum it may contain in saturation
conditions.

The areas that contain temperatures outside the present level/span
settings are colored with the saturation colors. The saturation colors
contain an ‘overflow’ color and an ‘underflow’ color. There is also a
third red saturation color that marks everything saturated by the de­tector indicating that the range should probably be changed.

The interval of the temperature scale, usually expressed as a signal
value.

Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and
wavelength (W/m

A value which is the result of a subtraction between two temperature
values.

The current overall temperature measurement limitation of an IR cam­era. Cameras can have several ranges. Expressed as two blackbody
temperatures that limit the current calibration.

The way in which an IR image currently is displayed. Expressed as
two temperature values limiting the colors.

Gases and materials can be more or less transparent. Transmission
is the amount of IR radiation passing through them. A number be­tween 0 and 1.

An isotherm showing a linear spread of colors, instead of covering the
highlighted parts of the image.

thermographic mode. When a camera is in video mode it captures or­dinary video images, while thermographic images are captured when
the camera is in IR mode.

2

/μm)

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15

Thermographic measurement techniques

15.1 Introduction

An infrared camera measures and images the emitted infrared radiation from an object.
The fact that radiation is a function of object surface temperature makes it possible for the
camera to calculate and display this temperature.

However, the radiation measured by the camera does not only depend on the temperature
of the object but is also a function of the emissivity. Radiation also originates from the sur­roundings and is reflected in the object. The radiation from the object and the reflected ra­diation will also be influenced by the absorption of the atmosphere.

To measure temperature accurately, it is therefore necessary to compensate for the effects
of a number of different radiation sources. This is done on-line automatically by the cam­era. The following object parameters must, however, be supplied for the camera:

• The emissivity of the object

• The reflected apparent temperature

• The distance between the object and the camera

• The relative humidity

• Temperature of the atmosphere

15.2 Emissivity

The most important object parameter to set correctly is the emissivity which, in short, is a
measure of how much radiation is emitted from the object, compared to that from a perfect
blackbody of the same temperature.

Normally, object materials and surface treatments exhibit emissivity ranging from approxi­mately 0.1 to 0.95. A highly polished (mirror) surface falls below 0.1, while an oxidized or
painted surface has a higher emissivity. Oil-based paint, regardless of color in the visible
spectrum, has an emissivity over 0.9 in the infrared. Human skin exhibits an emissivity

0.97 to 0.98.
Non-oxidized metals represent an extreme case of perfect opacity and high reflexivity,

which does not vary greatly with wavelength. Consequently, the emissivity of metals is low
– only increasing with temperature. For non-metals, emissivity tends to be high, and de­creases with temperature.

15.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample

15.2.1.1 Step 1: Determining reflected apparent temperature
Use one of the following two methods to determine reflected apparent temperature:

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Thermographic measurement techniques15

15.2.1.1.1 Method 1: Direct method

Follow this procedure:

1. Look for possible reflection sources, considering that the incident angle = reflection an­gle (a = b).

Figure 15.1 1 = Reflection source

2. If the reflection source is a spot source, modify the source by obstructing it using a
piece if cardboard.

Figure 15.2 1 = Reflection source

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Thermographic measurement techniques15

3. Measure the radiation intensity (= apparent temperature) from the reflecting source us­ing the following settings:

• Emissivity: 1.0

• D

: 0

obj

You can measure the radiation intensity using one of the following two methods:

Figure 15.3 1 = Reflection source

NOTE

Using a thermocouple to measure reflected apparent temperature is not recommended for two important
reasons:

• A thermocouple does not measure radiation intensity

• A thermocouple requires a very good thermal contact to the surface, usually by gluing and covering
the sensor by a thermal isolator.

15.2.1.1.2 Method 2: Reflector method

Follow this procedure:

1. Crumble up a large piece of aluminum foil.

2. Uncrumble the aluminum foil and attach it to a piece of cardboard of the same size.

3. Put the piece of cardboard in front of the object you want to measure. Make sure that
the side with aluminum foil points to the camera.

4. Set the emissivity to 1.0.

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Thermographic measurement techniques15

5. Measure the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil and write it down.

Figure 15.4 Measuring the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil.

15.2.1.2 Step 2: Determining the emissivity

Follow this procedure:

1. Select a place to put the sample.

2. Determine and set reflected apparent temperature according to the previous
procedure.

3. Put a piece of electrical tape with known high emissivity on the sample.

4. Heat the sample at least 20 K above room temperature. Heating must be reasonably
even.

5. Focus and auto-adjust the camera, and freeze the image.

6. Adjust Level and Span for best image brightness and contrast.

7. Set emissivity to that of the tape (usually 0.97).

8. Measure the temperature of the tape using one of the following measurement
functions:

• Isotherm (helps you to determine both the temperature and how evenly you have

heated the sample)

• Spot (simpler)

• Box Avg (good for surfaces with varying emissivity).

9. Write down the temperature.

10. Move your measurement function to the sample surface.

11. Change the emissivity setting until you read the same temperature as your previous
measurement.

12. Write down the emissivity.

NOTE

• Avoid forced convection

• Look for a thermally stable surrounding that will not generate spot reflections

• Use high quality tape that you know is not transparent, and has a high emissivity you are certain of

• This method assumes that the temperature of your tape and the sample surface are the same. If they
are not, your emissivity measurement will be wrong.

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Thermographic measurement techniques15

15.3 Reflected apparent temperature

This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected in the object. If the emis­sivity is low and the object temperature relatively far from that of the reflected it will be im­portant to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature correctly.

15.4 Distance

The distance is the distance between the object and the front lens of the camera. This pa­rameter is used to compensate for the following two facts:

• That radiation from the target is absorbed by the atmosphere between the object and
the camera.

• That radiation from the atmosphere itself is detected by the camera.

15.5 Relative humidity

The camera can also compensate for the fact that the transmittance is also dependent on
the relative humidity of the atmosphere. To do this set the relative humidity to the correct
value. For short distances and normal humidity the relative humidity can normally be left at
a default value of 50%.

15.6 Other parameters

In addition, some cameras and analysis programs from FLIR Systems allow you to com­pensate for the following parameters:

• Atmospheric temperature – i.e. the temperature of the atmosphere between the camera
and the target

• External optics temperature – i.e. the temperature of any external lenses or windows
used in front of the camera

• External optics transmittance – i.e. the transmission of any external lenses or windows
used in front of the camera

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16

History of infrared technology

Before the year 1800, the existence of the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
wasn't even suspected. The original significance of the infrared spectrum, or simply ‘the in­frared’ as it is often called, as a form of heat radiation is perhaps less obvious today than it
was at the time of its discovery by Herschel in 1800.

Figure 16.1 Sir William Herschel (1738–1822)

The discovery was made accidentally during the search for a new optical material. Sir Wil­liam Herschel – Royal Astronomer to King George III of England, and already famous for
his discovery of the planet Uranus – was searching for an optical filter material to reduce
the brightness of the sun’s image in telescopes during solar observations. While testing
different samples of colored glass which gave similar reductions in brightness he was in­trigued to find that some of the samples passed very little of the sun’s heat, while others
passed so much heat that he risked eye damage after only a few seconds’ observation.

Herschel was soon convinced of the necessity of setting up a systematic experiment, with
the objective of finding a single material that would give the desired reduction in brightness
as well as the maximum reduction in heat. He began the experiment by actually repeating
Newton’s prism experiment, but looking for the heating effect rather than the visual distri­bution of intensity in the spectrum. He first blackened the bulb of a sensitive mercury-in­glass thermometer with ink, and with this as his radiation detector he proceeded to test
the heating effect of the various colors of the spectrum formed on the top of a table by
passing sunlight through a glass prism. Other thermometers, placed outside the sun’s
rays, served as controls.

As the blackened thermometer was moved slowly along the colors of the spectrum, the
temperature readings showed a steady increase from the violet end to the red end. This
was not entirely unexpected, since the Italian researcher, Landriani, in a similar experiment
in 1777 had observed much the same effect. It was Herschel, however, who was the first
to recognize that there must be a point where the heating effect reaches a maximum, and
that measurements confined to the visible portion of the spectrum failed to locate this
point.

Figure 16.2 Marsilio Landriani (1746–1815)

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History of infrared technology

Moving the thermometer into the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum, Her­schel confirmed that the heating continued to increase. The maximum point, when he
found it, lay well beyond the red end – in what is known today as the ‘infrared wavelengths’.

When Herschel revealed his discovery, he referred to this new portion of the electromag­netic spectrum as the ‘thermometrical spectrum’. The radiation itself he sometimes re­ferred to as ‘dark heat’, or simply ‘the invisible rays’. Ironically, and contrary to popular
opinion, it wasn't Herschel who originated the term ‘infrared’. The word only began to ap­pear in print around 75 years later, and it is still unclear who should receive credit as the
originator.

Herschel’s use of glass in the prism of his original experiment led to some early controver­sies with his contemporaries about the actual existence of the infrared wavelengths. Differ­ent investigators, in attempting to confirm his work, used various types of glass
indiscriminately, having different transparencies in the infrared. Through his later experi­ments, Herschel was aware of the limited transparency of glass to the newly-discovered
thermal radiation, and he was forced to conclude that optics for the infrared would prob­ably be doomed to the use of reflective elements exclusively (i.e. plane and curved mir­rors). Fortunately, this proved to be true only until 1830, when the Italian investigator,
Melloni, made his great discovery that naturally occurring rock salt (NaCl) – which was
available in large enough natural crystals to be made into lenses and prisms – is remark­ably transparent to the infrared. The result was that rock salt became the principal infrared
optical material, and remained so for the next hundred years, until the art of synthetic crys­tal growing was mastered in the 1930’s.

Figure 16.3 Macedonio Melloni (1798–1854)

Thermometers, as radiation detectors, remained unchallenged until 1829, the year Nobili
invented the thermocouple. (Herschel’s own thermometer could be read to 0.2 °C (0.036 °
F), and later models were able to be read to 0.05 °C (0.09 °F)). Then a breakthrough oc­curred; Melloni connected a number of thermocouples in series to form the first thermopile.
The new device was at least 40 times as sensitive as the best thermometer of the day for
detecting heat radiation – capable of detecting the heat from a person standing three me­ters away.

The first so-called ‘heat-picture’ became possible in 1840, the result of work by Sir John
Herschel, son of the discoverer of the infrared and a famous astronomer in his own right.
Based upon the differential evaporation of a thin film of oil when exposed to a heat pattern
focused upon it, the thermal image could be seen by reflected light where the interference
effects of the oil film made the image visible to the eye. Sir John also managed to obtain a
primitive record of the thermal image on paper, which he called a ‘thermograph’.

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History of infrared technology

Figure 16.4 Samuel P. Langley (1834–1906)

The improvement of infrared-detector sensitivity progressed slowly. Another major break­through, made by Langley in 1880, was the invention of the bolometer. This consisted of a
thin blackened strip of platinum connected in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit upon
which the infrared radiation was focused and to which a sensitive galvanometer re­sponded. This instrument is said to have been able to detect the heat from a cow at a dis­tance of 400 meters.

An English scientist, Sir James Dewar, first introduced the use of liquefied gases as cool­ing agents (such as liquid nitrogen with a temperature of -196 °C (-320.8 °F)) in low tem­perature research. In 1892 he invented a unique vacuum insulating container in which it is
possible to store liquefied gases for entire days. The common ‘thermos bottle’, used for
storing hot and cold drinks, is based upon his invention.

Between the years 1900 and 1920, the inventors of the world ‘discovered’ the infrared.
Many patents were issued for devices to detect personnel, artillery, aircraft, ships – and
even icebergs. The first operating systems, in the modern sense, began to be developed
during the 1914–18 war, when both sides had research programs devoted to the military
exploitation of the infrared. These programs included experimental systems for enemy in­trusion/detection, remote temperature sensing, secure communications, and ‘flying torpe­do’ guidance. An infrared search system tested during this period was able to detect an
approaching airplane at a distance of 1.5 km (0.94 miles), or a person more than 300 me­ters (984 ft.) away.

The most sensitive systems up to this time were all based upon variations of the bolometer
idea, but the period between the two wars saw the development of two revolutionary new
infrared detectors: the image converter and the photon detector. At first, the image con­verter received the greatest attention by the military, because it enabled an observer for
the first time in history to literally ‘see in the dark’. However, the sensitivity of the image
converter was limited to the near infrared wavelengths, and the most interesting military
targets (i.e. enemy soldiers) had to be illuminated by infrared search beams. Since this in­volved the risk of giving away the observer’s position to a similarly-equipped enemy ob­server, it is understandable that military interest in the image converter eventually faded.

The tactical military disadvantages of so-called 'active’ (i.e. search beam-equipped) ther­mal imaging systems provided impetus following the 1939–45 war for extensive secret
military infrared-research programs into the possibilities of developing ‘passive’ (no search
beam) systems around the extremely sensitive photon detector. During this period, military
secrecy regulations completely prevented disclosure of the status of infrared-imaging
technology. This secrecy only began to be lifted in the middle of the 1950’s, and from that
time adequate thermal-imaging devices finally began to be available to civilian science
and industry.

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17

Theory of thermography

17.1 Introduction

The subjects of infrared radiation and the related technique of thermography are still new
to many who will use an infrared camera. In this section the theory behind thermography
will be given.

17.2 The electromagnetic spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is divided arbitrarily into a number of wavelength regions,
called bands, distinguished by the methods used to produce and detect the radiation.
There is no fundamental difference between radiation in the different bands of the electro­magnetic spectrum. They are all governed by the same laws and the only differences are
those due to differences in wavelength.

Figure 17.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. 1: X-ray; 2: UV; 3: Visible; 4: IR; 5: Microwaves; 6: Radiowaves.

Thermography makes use of the infrared spectral band. At the short-wavelength end the
boundary lies at the limit of visual perception, in the deep red. At the long-wavelength end
it merges with the microwave radio wavelengths, in the millimeter range.

The infrared band is often further subdivided into four smaller bands, the boundaries of
which are also arbitrarily chosen. They include: the near infrared (0.75–3 μm), the middle
infrared (3–6 μm), the far infrared (6–15 μm) and the extreme infrared (15–100 μm).
Although the wavelengths are given in μm (micrometers), other units are often still used to
measure wavelength in this spectral region, e.g. nanometer (nm) and Ångström (Å).

The relationships between the different wavelength measurements is:

17.3 Blackbody radiation

A blackbody is defined as an object which absorbs all radiation that impinges on it at any
wavelength. The apparent misnomer black relating to an object emitting radiation is ex­plained by Kirchhoff’s Law (after Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, 1824–1887), which states that a
body capable of absorbing all radiation at any wavelength is equally capable in the emis­sion of radiation.

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17

Theory of thermography

Figure 17.2 Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887)

The construction of a blackbody source is, in principle, very simple. The radiation charac­teristics of an aperture in an isotherm cavity made of an opaque absorbing material repre­sents almost exactly the properties of a blackbody. A practical application of the principle
to the construction of a perfect absorber of radiation consists of a box that is light tight ex­cept for an aperture in one of the sides. Any radiation which then enters the hole is scat­tered and absorbed by repeated reflections so only an infinitesimal fraction can possibly
escape. The blackness which is obtained at the aperture is nearly equal to a blackbody
and almost perfect for all wavelengths.

By providing such an isothermal cavity with a suitable heater it becomes what is termed a
cavity radiator. An isothermal cavity heated to a uniform temperature generates blackbody
radiation, the characteristics of which are determined solely by the temperature of the cav­ity. Such cavity radiators are commonly used as sources of radiation in temperature refer­ence standards in the laboratory for calibrating thermographic instruments, such as a
FLIR Systems camera for example.

If the temperature of blackbody radiation increases to more than 525°C (977°F), the
source begins to be visible so that it appears to the eye no longer black. This is the incipi­ent red heat temperature of the radiator, which then becomes orange or yellow as the tem­perature increases further. In fact, the definition of the so-called color temperature of an
object is the temperature to which a blackbody would have to be heated to have the same
appearance.

Now consider three expressions that describe the radiation emitted from a blackbody.

17.3.1 Planck’s law

Figure 17.3 Max Planck (1858–1947)

Max Planck (1858–1947) was able to describe the spectral distribution of the radiation
from a blackbody by means of the following formula:

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17

Theory of thermography

where:

W

λb

c

h Planck’s constant = 6.6 × 10
k
T Absolute temperature (K) of a blackbody.

λ Wavelength (μm).

NOTE

The factor 10

-6

is used since spectral emittance in the curves is expressed in Watt/m2, μm.

Blackbody spectral radiant emittance at wavelength λ.

Velocity of light = 3 × 10

Boltzmann’s constant = 1.4 × 10

8

m/s

-34

Joule sec.

-23

Joule/K.

Planck’s formula, when plotted graphically for various temperatures, produces a family of
curves. Following any particular Planck curve, the spectral emittance is zero at λ = 0, then
increases rapidly to a maximum at a wavelength λ

and after passing it approaches zero

max

again at very long wavelengths. The higher the temperature, the shorter the wavelength at
which maximum occurs.

Figure 17.4 Blackbody spectral radiant emittance according to Planck’s law, plotted for various absolute
temperatures. 1: Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm

2

× 103(μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm)

17.3.2 Wien’s displacement law

By differentiating Planck’s formula with respect to λ, and finding the maximum, we have:

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Theory of thermography

This is Wien’s formula (after Wilhelm Wien, 1864–1928), which expresses mathematically
the common observation that colors vary from red to orange or yellow as the temperature
of a thermal radiator increases. The wavelength of the color is the same as the wavelength
calculated for λ

. A good approximation of the value of λ

max

for a given blackbody tem-

max

perature is obtained by applying the rule-of-thumb 3 000/T μm. Thus, a very hot star such
as Sirius (11 000 K), emitting bluish-white light, radiates with the peak of spectral radiant
emittance occurring within the invisible ultraviolet spectrum, at wavelength 0.27 μm.

Figure 17.5 Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928)

The sun (approx. 6 000 K) emits yellow light, peaking at about 0.5 μm in the middle of the
visible light spectrum.

At room temperature (300 K) the peak of radiant emittance lies at 9.7 μm, in the far infra­red, while at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K) the maximum of the almost insignifi­cant amount of radiant emittance occurs at 38 μm, in the extreme infrared wavelengths.

Figure 17.6 Planckian curves plotted on semi-log scales from 100 K to 1000 K. The dotted line represents
the locus of maximum radiant emittance at each temperature as described by Wien's displacement law. 1:
Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm

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(μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm).

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17

Theory of thermography

17.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's law

By integrating Planck’s formula from λ = 0 to λ = ∞, we obtain the total radiant emittance
(W

) of a blackbody:

b

This is the Stefan-Boltzmann formula (after Josef Stefan, 1835–1893, and Ludwig Boltz-
mann, 1844–1906), which states that the total emissive power of a blackbody is propor­tional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. Graphically, W

represents the area

b

below the Planck curve for a particular temperature. It can be shown that the radiant emit­tance in the interval λ = 0 to λ

is only 25% of the total, which represents about the

max

amount of the sun’s radiation which lies inside the visible light spectrum.

Figure 17.7 Josef Stefan (1835–1893), and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906)

Using the Stefan-Boltzmann formula to calculate the power radiated by the human body,
at a temperature of 300 K and an external surface area of approx. 2 m

2

, we obtain 1 kW.
This power loss could not be sustained if it were not for the compensating absorption of ra­diation from surrounding surfaces, at room temperatures which do not vary too drastically
from the temperature of the body – or, of course, the addition of clothing.

17.3.4 Non-blackbody emitters

So far, only blackbody radiators and blackbody radiation have been discussed. However,
real objects almost never comply with these laws over an extended wavelength region –
although they may approach the blackbody behavior in certain spectral intervals. For ex­ample, a certain type of white paint may appear perfectly white in the visible light spec­trum, but becomes distinctly gray at about 2 μm, and beyond 3 μm it is almost black.

There are three processes which can occur that prevent a real object from acting like a
blackbody: a fraction of the incident radiation α may be absorbed, a fraction ρ may be re­flected, and a fraction τ may be transmitted. Since all of these factors are more or less
wavelength dependent, the subscript λ is used to imply the spectral dependence of their
definitions. Thus:

• The spectral absorptance α

= the ratio of the spectral radiant power absorbed by an ob-

λ

ject to that incident upon it.

• The spectral reflectance ρ

= the ratio of the spectral radiant power reflected by an ob-

λ

ject to that incident upon it.

• The spectral transmittance τ

= the ratio of the spectral radiant power transmitted

λ

through an object to that incident upon it.

The sum of these three factors must always add up to the whole at any wavelength, so we
have the relation:

For opaque materials τλ= 0 and the relation simplifies to:

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Theory of thermography

Another factor, called the emissivity, is required to describe the fraction ε of the radiant
emittance of a blackbody produced by an object at a specific temperature. Thus, we have
the definition:

The spectral emissivity ε

= the ratio of the spectral radiant power from an object to that

λ

from a blackbody at the same temperature and wavelength.
Expressed mathematically, this can be written as the ratio of the spectral emittance of the

object to that of a blackbody as follows:

Generally speaking, there are three types of radiation source, distinguished by the ways in
which the spectral emittance of each varies with wavelength.

• A blackbody, for which ε

• A graybody, for which ε

= ε = 1

λ

= ε = constant less than 1

λ

• A selective radiator, for which ε varies with wavelength
According to Kirchhoff’s law, for any material the spectral emissivity and spectral absorp-

tance of a body are equal at any specified temperature and wavelength. That is:

From this we obtain, for an opaque material (since αλ+ ρλ= 1):

For highly polished materials ελapproaches zero, so that for a perfectly reflecting material
(i.e. a perfect mirror) we have:

For a graybody radiator, the Stefan-Boltzmann formula becomes:

This states that the total emissive power of a graybody is the same as a blackbody at the
same temperature reduced in proportion to the value of ε from the graybody.

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Theory of thermography

Figure 17.8 Spectral radiant emittance of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral radiant emittance; 2: Wave-

length; 3: Blackbody; 4: Selective radiator; 5: Graybody.

Figure 17.9 Spectral emissivity of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral emissivity; 2: Wavelength; 3: Black­body; 4: Graybody; 5: Selective radiator.

17.4 Infrared semi-transparent materials

Consider now a non-metallic, semi-transparent body – let us say, in the form of a thick flat
plate of plastic material. When the plate is heated, radiation generated within its volume
must work its way toward the surfaces through the material in which it is partially absorbed.
Moreover, when it arrives at the surface, some of it is reflected back into the interior. The
back-reflected radiation is again partially absorbed, but some of it arrives at the other sur­face, through which most of it escapes; part of it is reflected back again. Although the pro­gressive reflections become weaker and weaker they must all be added up when the total
emittance of the plate is sought. When the resulting geometrical series is summed, the ef­fective emissivity of a semi-transparent plate is obtained as:

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Theory of thermography

When the plate becomes opaque this formula is reduced to the single formula:

This last relation is a particularly convenient one, because it is often easier to measure re­flectance than to measure emissivity directly.

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The measurement formula

As already mentioned, when viewing an object, the camera receives radiation not only
from the object itself. It also collects radiation from the surroundings reflected via the ob­ject surface. Both these radiation contributions become attenuated to some extent by the
atmosphere in the measurement path. To this comes a third radiation contribution from the
atmosphere itself.

This description of the measurement situation, as illustrated in the figure below, is so far a
fairly true description of the real conditions. What has been neglected could for instance
be sun light scattering in the atmosphere or stray radiation from intense radiation sources
outside the field of view. Such disturbances are difficult to quantify, however, in most cases
they are fortunately small enough to be neglected. In case they are not negligible, the
measurement configuration is likely to be such that the risk for disturbance is obvious, at
least to a trained operator. It is then his responsibility to modify the measurement situation
to avoid the disturbance e.g. by changing the viewing direction, shielding off intense radia­tion sources etc.

Accepting the description above, we can use the figure below to derive a formula for the
calculation of the object temperature from the calibrated camera output.

Figure 18.1 A schematic representation of the general thermographic measurement situation.1: Surround­ings; 2: Object; 3: Atmosphere; 4: Camera

Assume that the received radiation power W from a blackbody source of temperature
T

on short distance generates a camera output signal U

source

the power input (power linear camera). We can then write (Equation 1):

or, with simplified notation:

where C is a constant.
Should the source be a graybody with emittance ε, the received radiation would conse-

quently be εW
We are now ready to write the three collected radiation power terms:

1. Emission from the object = ετW

transmittance of the atmosphere. The object temperature is T

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source

.

, where ε is the emittance of the object and τ is the

obj

that is proportional to

source

.

obj

57

18

The measurement formula

2. Reflected emission from ambient sources = (1 – ε)τW

tance of the object. The ambient sources have the temperature T
It has here been assumed that the temperature T

, where (1 – ε) is the reflec-

refl

.

refl

is the same for all emitting surfaces

refl

within the halfsphere seen from a point on the object surface. This is of course some­times a simplification of the true situation. It is, however, a necessary simplification in
order to derive a workable formula, and T

can – at least theoretically – be given a val-

refl

ue that represents an efficient temperature of a complex surrounding.
Note also that we have assumed that the emittance for the surroundings = 1. This is

correct in accordance with Kirchhoff’s law: All radiation impinging on the surrounding
surfaces will eventually be absorbed by the same surfaces. Thus the emittance = 1.
(Note though that the latest discussion requires the complete sphere around the object
to be considered.)

3. Emission from the atmosphere = (1 – τ)τW

mosphere. The temperature of the atmosphere is T

, where (1 – τ) is the emittance of the at-

atm

atm

.

The total received radiation power can now be written (Equation 2):

We multiply each term by the constant C of Equation 1 and replace the CW products by
the corresponding U according to the same equation, and get (Equation 3):

Solve Equation 3 for U

(Equation 4):

obj

This is the general measurement formula used in all the FLIR Systems thermographic
equipment. The voltages of the formula are:

Table 18.1 Voltages

U

obj

U

tot

U

refl

U

atm

Calculated camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature T
i.e. a voltage that can be directly converted into true requested object
temperature.

Measured camera output voltage for the actual case.

Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature
T

according to the calibration.

refl

Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature

according to the calibration.

T

atm

obj

The operator has to supply a number of parameter values for the calculation:

• the object emittance ε,

• the relative humidity,

• T

atm

• object distance (D

obj

)

• the (effective) temperature of the object surroundings, or the reflected ambient temper-

ature T

• the temperature of the atmosphere T

refl

, and

atm

This task could sometimes be a heavy burden for the operator since there are normally no
easy ways to find accurate values of emittance and atmospheric transmittance for the

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18

The measurement formula

actual case. The two temperatures are normally less of a problem provided the surround­ings do not contain large and intense radiation sources.

A natural question in this connection is: How important is it to know the right values of
these parameters? It could though be of interest to get a feeling for this problem already
here by looking into some different measurement cases and compare the relative magni­tudes of the three radiation terms. This will give indications about when it is important to
use correct values of which parameters.

The figures below illustrates the relative magnitudes of the three radiation contributions for
three different object temperatures, two emittances, and two spectral ranges: SW and LW.
Remaining parameters have the following fixed values:

• τ = 0.88

• T

= +20°C (+68°F)

refl

• T

= +20°C (+68°F)

atm

It is obvious that measurement of low object temperatures are more critical than measur­ing high temperatures since the ‘disturbing’ radiation sources are relatively much stronger
in the first case. Should also the object emittance be low, the situation would be still more
difficult.

We have finally to answer a question about the importance of being allowed to use the cal­ibration curve above the highest calibration point, what we call extrapolation. Imagine that
we in a certain case measure U

= 4.5 volts. The highest calibration point for the camera

tot

was in the order of 4.1 volts, a value unknown to the operator. Thus, even if the object hap­pened to be a blackbody, i.e. U

obj

= U

, we are actually performing extrapolation of the

tot

calibration curve when converting 4.5 volts into temperature.
Let us now assume that the object is not black, it has an emittance of 0.75, and the trans-

mittance is 0.92. We also assume that the two second terms of Equation 4 amount to 0.5
volts together. Computation of U

by means of Equation 4 then results in U

obj

= 4.5 / 0.75

obj

/ 0.92 – 0.5 = 6.0. This is a rather extreme extrapolation, particularly when considering that
the video amplifier might limit the output to 5 volts! Note, though, that the application of the
calibration curve is a theoretical procedure where no electronic or other limitations exist.
We trust that if there had been no signal limitations in the camera, and if it had been cali­brated far beyond 5 volts, the resulting curve would have been very much the same as our
real curve extrapolated beyond 4.1 volts, provided the calibration algorithm is based on ra­diation physics, like the FLIR Systems algorithm. Of course there must be a limit to such
extrapolations.

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The measurement formula

Figure 18.2 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (SW camera).

1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radia­tion. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; T

Figure 18.3 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (LW camera).
1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radia­tion. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; T

= 20°C (+68°F); T

refl

= 20°C (+68°F); T

refl

= 20°C (+68°F).

atm

= 20°C (+68°F).

atm

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19

Emissivity tables

This section presents a compilation of emissivity data from the infrared literature and
measurements made by FLIR Systems.

19.1 References

1. Mikaél A. Bramson: Infrared Radiation, A Handbook for Applications, Plenum press, N.

Y.

2. William L. Wolfe, George J. Zissis: The Infrared Handbook, Office of Naval Research,

Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.

3. Madding, R. P.: Thermographic Instruments and systems. Madison, Wisconsin: Univer-

sity of Wisconsin – Extension, Department of Engineering and Applied Science.

4. William L. Wolfe: Handbook of Military Infrared Technology, Office of Naval Research,

Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.

5. Jones, Smith, Probert: External thermography of buildings..., Proc. of the Society of

Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol.110, Industrial and Civil Applications of
Infrared Technology, June 1977 London.

6. Paljak, Pettersson: Thermography of Buildings, Swedish Building Research Institute,

Stockholm 1972.

7. Vlcek, J: Determination of emissivity with imaging radiometers and some emissivities

at λ = 5 µm. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing.

8. Kern: Evaluation of infrared emission of clouds and ground as measured by weather

satellites, Defence Documentation Center, AD 617 417.

9. Öhman, Claes: Emittansmätningar med AGEMA E-Box. Teknisk rapport, AGEMA

1999. (Emittance measurements using AGEMA E-Box. Technical report, AGEMA

1999.)

10. Matteï, S., Tang-Kwor, E: Emissivity measurements for Nextel Velvet coating 811-21

between –36°C AND 82°C.

11. Lohrengel & Todtenhaupt (1996)

12. ITC Technical publication 32.

13. ITC Technical publication 29.

NOTE

The emissivity values in the table below are recorded using a shortwave (SW) camera. The values should
be regarded as recommendations only and used with caution.

19.2 Tables

Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference

1 2 3 4 5 6

3M type 35 Vinyl electrical

3M type 88 Black vinyl electri-

3M type 88 Black vinyl electri-

3M type Super 33
+

Aluminum anodized sheet 100 T 0.55 2
Aluminum anodized, black,

tape (several
colors)

cal tape

cal tape

Black vinyl electri­cal tape

dull

< 80 LW ≈ 0.96 13

< 105 LW ≈ 0.96 13

< 105 MW < 0.96 13

< 80 LW ≈ 0.96 13

70

SW

0.67 9

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Emissivity tables19

Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Aluminum anodized, black,

Aluminum anodized, light

Aluminum anodized, light

Aluminum as received, plate 100 T 0.09 4

Aluminum as received, sheet 100 T 0.09 2

Aluminum cast, blast

Aluminum cast, blast

Aluminum

Aluminum foil

Aluminum foil

Aluminum oxidized, strongly 50–500 T 0.2–0.3 1

Aluminum polished 50–100 T 0.04–0.06 1

Aluminum polished plate 100 T 0.05 4

Aluminum polished, sheet 100 T 0.05 2

Aluminum rough surface

Aluminum roughened 27 10 µm 0.18 3

Aluminum roughened 27 3 µm 0.28 3

Aluminum sheet, 4 samples

Aluminum sheet, 4 samples

Aluminum vacuum deposited 20 T 0.04 2

Aluminum weathered,

Aluminum bronze 20 T 0.60 1
Aluminum

hydroxide

Aluminum oxide activated, powder T 0.46 1

Aluminum oxide pure, powder

Asbestos board 20 T 0.96 1
Asbestos fabric T 0.78 1
Asbestos floor tile
Asbestos

Asbestos powder T 0.40–0.60 1

Asbestos slate 20 T 0.96 1

dull

gray, dull

gray, dull

cleaned

cleaned
dipped in HNO

plate

differently
scratched

differently
scratched

heavily

powder T 0.28 1

(alumina)

paper 40–400 T 0.93–0.95 1

70 LW 0.95 9

70

70 LW 0.97 9

70

70 LW 0.46 9

100 T 0.05 4

,

3

27 10 µm 0.04 3

27 3 µm 0.09 3

20–50 T 0.06–0.07 1

70

70 LW 0.03–0.06 9

17

35

SW

SW

SW

SW

T 0.16 1

SW

0.61 9

0.47 9

0.05–0.08 9

0.83–0.94 5

0.94 7

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Emissivity tables19

Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Asphalt paving 4 LLW 0.967 8

Brass dull, tarnished 20–350 T 0.22 1

Brass oxidized 100 T 0.61 2
Brass oxidized 70
Brass oxidized 70 LW 0.03–0.07 9
Brass oxidized at 600°C
Brass polished 200 T 0.03 1

Brass polished, highly 100 T 0.03 2

Brass rubbed with 80-

Brass sheet, rolled 20 T 0.06 1

Brass sheet, worked

Brick alumina 17
Brick
Brick Dinas silica,

Brick Dinas silica,

Brick Dinas silica, un-

Brick firebrick
Brick fireclay

Brick fireclay

Brick fireclay

Brick

Brick

Brick red, common 20 T 0.93 2

Brick red, rough 20 T 0.88–0.93 1

Brick refractory,

Brick refractory,

Brick refractory, strongly

Brick refractory, weakly

Brick

Brick sillimanite, 33%

Brick waterproof

Bronze phosphor bronze 70

grit emery

with emery

common 17

glazed, rough

refractory

glazed, rough

masonry 35

masonry,
plastered

corundum

magnesite

radiating

radiating

silica, 95% SiO

SiO

, 64% Al2O

2

200–600 T 0.59–0.61 1

20 T 0.20 2

20 T 0.2 1

1100 T 0.85 1

1000 T 0.66 1

1000 T 0.80 1

17
1000 T 0.75 1

1200 T 0.59 1

20 T 0.85 1

20 T 0.94 1

1000 T 0.46 1

1000–1300 T 0.38 1

500–1000 T 0.8–0.9 1

500–1000 T 0.65–0.75 1

1230 T 0.66 1

2

1500 T 0.29 1

3

17

SW

SW
SW

SW

SW

SW

SW

0.04–0.09 9

0.68 5

0.86–0.81 5

0.68 5

0.94 7

0.87 5

0.08 9

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Emissivity tables19

Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Bronze phosphor bronze 70 LW 0.06 9

Bronze polished 50 T 0.1 1

Bronze porous, rough 50–150 T 0.55 1

Bronze powder T 0.76–0.80 1

Carbon candle soot 20 T 0.95 2
Carbon

Carbon graphite powder T 0.97 1

Carbon graphite, filed

Carbon lampblack 20–400 T 0.95–0.97 1

Chipboard

Chromium

Chromium polished 500–1000 T 0.28–0.38 1

Clay fired

Cloth black 20 T 0.98 1
Concrete
Concrete

Concrete rough 17 SW

Concrete walkway

Copper

Copper electrolytic, care-

Copper

Copper molten 1100–1300 T 0.13–0.15 1

Copper oxidized 50 T 0.6–0.7 1

Copper oxidized to

Copper

Copper

Copper

Copper

Copper

Copper

Copper pure, carefully

Copper scraped 27 T 0.07 4

Copper dioxide powder T 0.84 1

Copper oxide red, powder T 0.70 1

charcoal powder T 0.96 1

surface

untreated 20

polished 50 T 0.10 1

dry 36

commercial,
burnished

fully polished

electrolytic,
polished

blackness
oxidized, black 27 T 0.78 4

oxidized, heavily 20 T 0.78 2

polished 50–100 T 0.02 1

polished 100 T 0.03 2

polished,
commercial

polished,
mechanical

prepared surface

20 T 0.98 2

SW

70 T 0.91 1

20 T 0.92 2

SW

5

20 T 0.07 1

80 T 0.018 1

–34 T 0.006 4

27 T 0.03 4

22 T 0.015 4

22 T 0.008 4

LLW 0.974 8

T 0.88 1

0.90 6

0.95 7

0.97 5

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Emissivity tables19

Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Ebonite T 0.89 1
Emery

Enamel 20 T 0.9 1
Enamel lacquer 20 T 0.85–0.95 1

Fiber board hard, untreated 20

Fiber board masonite 70
Fiber board masonite 70 LW 0.88 9
Fiber board particle board 70

Fiber board particle board 70 LW 0.89 9

Fiber board porous, untreated 20

Gold

Gold polished, carefully

Gold

Granite polished 20 LLW 0.849 8

Granite

Granite rough, 4 different

Granite rough, 4 different

Gypsum

Ice: See Water
Iron and steel cold rolled 70
Iron and steel cold rolled 70 LW 0.09 9
Iron and steel covered with red

Iron and steel electrolytic 100 T 0.05 4

Iron and steel electrolytic 22 T 0.05 4

Iron and steel electrolytic 260 T 0.07 4

Iron and steel electrolytic, care-

Iron and steel freshly worked

Iron and steel ground sheet 950–1100 T 0.55–0.61 1

Iron and steel heavily rusted

Iron and steel hot rolled 130 T 0.60 1
Iron and steel hot rolled 20 T 0.77 1
Iron and steel oxidized 100 T 0.74 4
Iron and steel oxidized 100 T 0.74 1
Iron and steel oxidized 1227 T 0.89 4
Iron and steel oxidized 125–525 T 0.78–0.82 1
Iron and steel oxidized 200 T 0.79 2

coarse 80 T 0.85 1

SW

SW

SW

SW

polished 130 T 0.018 1

200–600 T 0.02–0.03 1

polished, highly 100 T 0.02 2

rough 21 LLW 0.879 8

samples

70

70 LW 0.77–0.87 9

samples

20 T 0.8–0.9 1

20 T 0.61–0.85 1

rust

175–225 T 0.05–0.06 1

fully polished

20 T 0.24 1

with emery

20 T 0.69 2

sheet

SW

SW

0.85 6

0.75 9

0.77 9

0.85 6

0.95–0.97 9

0.20 9

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Emissivity tables19

Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Iron and steel oxidized 200–600 T 0.80 1
Iron and steel oxidized strongly 50 T 0.88 1

Iron and steel oxidized strongly 500 T 0.98 1

Iron and steel polished 100 T 0.07 2

Iron and steel polished 400–1000 T 0.14–0.38 1

Iron and steel polished sheet 750–1050 T 0.52–0.56 1

Iron and steel rolled sheet 50 T 0.56 1
Iron and steel rolled, freshly

Iron and steel rough, plane

Iron and steel rusted red, sheet 22 T 0.69 4

Iron and steel rusted, heavily 17

Iron and steel rusty, red 20 T 0.69 1

Iron and steel shiny oxide layer,

Iron and steel shiny, etched 150 T 0.16 1

Iron and steel wrought, carefully

Iron galvanized heavily oxidized 70

Iron galvanized heavily oxidized 70 LW 0.85 9

Iron galvanized sheet 92 T 0.07 4

Iron galvanized sheet, burnished 30 T 0.23 1

Iron galvanized sheet, oxidized 20 T 0.28 1

Iron tinned sheet 24 T 0.064 4
Iron, cast casting 50 T 0.81 1

Iron, cast ingots 1000 T 0.95 1

Iron, cast liquid 1300 T 0.28 1

Iron, cast machined 800–1000 T 0.60–0.70 1

Iron, cast oxidized 100 T 0.64 2

Iron, cast oxidized 260 T 0.66 4

Iron, cast oxidized 38 T 0.63 4

Iron, cast oxidized 538 T 0.76 4

Iron, cast

Iron, cast polished 200 T 0.21 1

Iron, cast polished 38 T 0.21 4

Iron, cast polished 40 T 0.21 2

Iron, cast unworked 900–1100 T 0.87–0.95 1

Krylon Ultra-flat
black 1602

surface

sheet,

polished

oxidized at 600°C

Flat black Room tempera-

20 T 0.24 1

50 T 0.95–0.98 1

SW

20 T 0.82 1

40–250 T 0.28 1

SW

200–600 T 0.64–0.78 1

LW ≈ 0.96 12

ture up to 175

0.96 5

0.64 9

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Emissivity tables19

Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Krylon Ultra-flat
black 1602

Lacquer 3 colors sprayed

Lacquer 3 colors sprayed

Lacquer Aluminum on

Lacquer bakelite 80 T 0.83 1

Lacquer black, dull 40–100 T 0.96–0.98 1

Lacquer black, matte 100 T 0.97 2

Lacquer black, shiny,

Lacquer heat–resistant 100 T 0.92 1

Lacquer white 100 T 0.92 2

Lacquer white 40–100 T 0.8–0.95 1

Lead
Lead oxidized, gray 20 T 0.28 1

Lead oxidized, gray 22 T 0.28 4

Lead shiny 250 T 0.08 1

Lead unoxidized,

Lead red 100 T 0.93 4
Lead red, powder 100 T 0.93 1

Leather tanned T 0.75–0.80 1
Lime T 0.3–0.4 1
Magnesium 22 T 0.07 4

Magnesium 260 T 0.13 4

Magnesium 538 T 0.18 4

Magnesium polished 20 T 0.07 2

Magnesium
powder

Molybdenum 1500–2200 T 0.19–0.26 1

Molybdenum 600–1000 T 0.08–0.13 1

Molybdenum filament

Mortar 17
Mortar dry 36

Nextel Velvet 811­21 Black

Nichrome rolled 700 T 0.25 1
Nichrome sandblasted 700 T 0.70 1
Nichrome wire, clean 50 T 0.65 1

Flat black Room tempera-

on Aluminum

on Aluminum

rough surface

sprayed on iron

oxidized at 200°C

polished

Flat black –60–150 LW > 0.97 10 and

ture up to 175

70

70 LW 0.92–0.94 9

20 T 0.4 1

20 T 0.87 1

200 T 0.63 1

100 T 0.05 4

700–2500 T 0.1–0.3 1

MW ≈ 0.97 12

SW

T 0.86 1

SW
SW

0.50–0.53 9

0.87 5

0.94 7

11

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67

Emissivity tables19

Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Nichrome wire, clean 500–1000 T 0.71–0.79 1

Nichrome wire, oxidized 50–500 T 0.95–0.98 1

Nickel bright matte 122 T 0.041 4

Nickel commercially

Nickel commercially

Nickel electrolytic 22 T 0.04 4

Nickel electrolytic 260 T 0.07 4

Nickel electrolytic 38 T 0.06 4

Nickel electrolytic 538 T 0.10 4

Nickel electroplated on

Nickel electroplated on

Nickel electroplated on

Nickel electroplated,

Nickel oxidized 1227 T 0.85 4
Nickel oxidized 200 T 0.37 2
Nickel oxidized 227 T 0.37 4
Nickel oxidized at 600°C
Nickel polished 122 T 0.045 4

Nickel wire 200–1000 T 0.1–0.2 1
Nickel oxide 1000–1250 T 0.75–0.86 1
Nickel oxide 500–650 T 0.52–0.59 1
Oil, lubricating 0.025 mm film

Oil, lubricating 0.050 mm film

Oil, lubricating 0.125 mm film

Oil, lubricating film on Ni base: Ni

Oil, lubricating

Paint 8 different colors

Paint 8 different colors

Paint Aluminum, various

Paint cadmium yellow T 0.28–0.33 1

Paint chrome green T 0.65–0.70 1

Paint cobalt blue T 0.7–0.8 1
Paint oil 17

pure, polished

pure, polished

iron, polished

iron, unpolished

iron, unpolished

polished

base only

thick coating 20 T 0.82 2

and qualities

and qualities

ages

100 T 0.045 1

200–400 T 0.07–0.09 1

22 T 0.045 4

20 T 0.11–0.40 1

22 T 0.11 4

20 T 0.05 2

200–600 T 0.37–0.48 1

20 T 0.27 2

20 T 0.46 2

20 T 0.72 2

20 T 0.05 2

70

70 LW 0.92–0.94 9

50–100 T 0.27–0.67 1

SW

SW

0.88–0.96 9

0.87 5

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68

Emissivity tables19

Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Paint oil based, average

Paint oil, black flat

Paint oil, black gloss 20

Paint oil, gray flat

Paint oil, gray gloss 20

Paint oil, various colors 100 T 0.92–0.96 1

Paint plastic, black 20

Paint plastic, white 20

Paper 4 different colors

Paper 4 different colors

Paper black T 0.90 1

Paper black, dull T 0.94 1

Paper black, dull 70

Paper black, dull 70 LW 0.89 9

Paper blue, dark T 0.84 1

Paper coated with black

Paper

Paper red T 0.76 1

Paper white 20 T 0.7–0.9 1

Paper white bond 20 T 0.93 2

Paper white, 3 different

Paper white, 3 different

Paper yellow T 0.72 1

Plaster 17
Plaster plasterboard,

Plaster rough coat 20 T 0.91 2

Plastic glass fibre lami-

Plastic glass fibre lami-

Plastic polyurethane iso-

Plastic polyurethane iso-

Plastic PVC, plastic floor,

of 16 colors

lacquer

green

glosses

glosses

untreated

nate (printed circ.
board)

nate (printed circ.
board)

lation board

lation board

dull, structured

100 T 0.94 2

20

20

70

70 LW 0.92–0.94 9

70

70 LW 0.88–0.90 9

20

70

70 LW 0.91 9

70 LW 0.55 9

70

70

SW

SW

SW

SW

SW

SW

SW

SW

T 0.93 1

T 0.85 1

SW

SW
SW

SW

SW

SW

0.94 6

0.92 6

0.97 6

0.96 6

0.95 6

0.84 6

0.68–0.74 9

0.86 9

0.76–0.78 9

0.86 5

0.90 6

0.94 9

0.29 9

0.94 9

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69

Emissivity tables19

Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Plastic

Platinum 100 T 0.05 4
Platinum 1000–1500 T 0.14–0.18 1
Platinum 1094 T 0.18 4
Platinum 17 T 0.016 4
Platinum 22 T 0.03 4
Platinum 260 T 0.06 4
Platinum 538 T 0.10 4
Platinum pure, polished 200–600 T 0.05–0.10 1

Platinum ribbon 900–1100 T 0.12–0.17 1
Platinum wire 1400 T 0.18 1
Platinum wire 500–1000 T 0.10–0.16 1
Platinum wire 50–200 T 0.06–0.07 1
Porcelain glazed 20 T 0.92 1

Porcelain white, shiny T 0.70–0.75 1

Rubber hard 20 T 0.95 1
Rubber soft, gray, rough

Sand T 0.60 1
Sand
Sandstone

Sandstone rough 19 LLW 0.935 8

Silver polished 100 T 0.03 2

Silver

Skin human 32 T 0.98 2
Slag boiler 0–100 T 0.97–0.93 1

Slag boiler 1400–1800 T 0.69–0.67 1

Slag

Slag

Snow: See Water
Soil dry 20 T 0.92 2

Soil

Stainless steel alloy, 8% Ni, 18%

Stainless steel rolled 700 T 0.45 1
Stainless steel sandblasted 700 T 0.70 1
Stainless steel

Stainless steel

Stainless steel sheet, untreated,

PVC, plastic floor,
dull, structured

polished 19 LLW 0.909 8

pure, polished 200–600 T 0.02–0.03 1

boiler 200–500 T 0.89–0.78 1

boiler 600–1200 T 0.76–0.70 1

saturated with
water

Cr

sheet, polished 70

sheet, polished 70 LW 0.14 9

somewhat
scratched

70 LW 0.93 9

20 T 0.95 1

20 T 0.90 2

20 T 0.95 2

500 T 0.35 1

0.18 9

0.30 9

70

SW

SW

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70

Emissivity tables19

Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Stainless steel

Stainless steel type 18-8, buffed

Stainless steel type 18-8, oxi-

Stucco rough, lime 10–90 T 0.91 1

Styrofoam insulation 37 SW

Tar T 0.79–0.84 1
Tar

Tile glazed 17

Tin burnished 20–50 T 0.04–0.06 1
Tin tin–plated sheet

Titanium oxidized at 540°C
Titanium
Titanium oxidized at 540°C
Titanium polished 1000 T 0.36 1

Titanium polished 200 T 0.15 1

Titanium polished 500 T 0.20 1

Tungsten 1500–2200 T 0.24–0.31 1

Tungsten 200 T 0.05 1

Tungsten 600–1000 T 0.1–0.16 1

Tungsten filament

Varnish flat
Varnish on oak parquet

Varnish on oak parquet

Wallpaper slight pattern, light

Wallpaper slight pattern, red 20

Water distilled 20 T 0.96 2
Water frost crystals

Water ice, covered with

Water ice, smooth 0 T 0.97 1

Water ice, smooth –10 T 0.96 2

Water layer >0.1 mm

Water
Water
Wood 17

sheet, untreated,
somewhat
scratched

dized at 800°C

paper 20 T 0.91–0.93 1

iron

oxidized at 540°C

floor

floor

gray

heavy frost

thick
snow
snow –10 T 0.85 2

70 LW 0.28 9

20 T 0.16 2

60 T 0.85 2

0.60 7

SW

100 T 0.07 2

1000 T 0.60 1
200 T 0.40 1
500 T 0.50 1

3300 T 0.39 1

20
70

70 LW 0.90–0.93 9

20

–10 T 0.98 2

0 T 0.98 1

0–100 T 0.95–0.98 1

SW
SW

SW

SW

T 0.8 1

SW

0.94 5

0.93 6

0.90 9

0.85 6

0.90 6

0.98 5

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Emissivity tables19

Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Wood 19 LLW 0.962 8
Wood ground T 0.5–0.7 1

Wood pine, 4 different

samples

Wood pine, 4 different

samples

Wood planed 20 T 0.8–0.9 1

Wood planed oak 20 T 0.90 2

Wood planed oak 70

Wood planed oak 70 LW 0.88 9

Wood plywood, smooth,

dry

Wood plywood,

untreated

Wood white, damp 20 T 0.7–0.8 1

Zinc oxidized at 400°C
Zinc oxidized surface
Zinc polished 200–300 T 0.04–0.05 1

Zinc sheet 50 T 0.20 1

70

70 LW 0.81–0.89 9

36

20

400 T 0.11 1
1000–1200 T 0.50–0.60 1

SW

SW

SW

SW

0.67–0.75 9

0.77 9

0.82 7

0.83 6

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A note on the technical production of this publication

This publication was produced using XML — the eXtensible Markup Language. For more information about
XML, please visit http://www.w3.org/XML/

A note on the typeface used in this publication

This publication was typeset using Linotype Helvetica™ World. Helvetica™ was designed by Max Miedinger
(1910–1980)

LOEF (List Of Effective Files)

T501109.xml; en-US; AE; 23547; 2015-02-27
T505552.xml; en-US; 9599; 2013-11-05
T505551.xml; en-US; 22782; 2015-01-27
T505469.xml; en-US; 23215; 2015-02-19
T505013.xml; en-US; 9229; 2013-10-03
T505799.xml; en-US; ; 23545; 2015-02-27
T505800.xml; en-US; ; 23541; 2015-02-26
T505801.xml; en-US; ; 23545; 2015-02-27
T505816.xml; en-US; -; -; ­T505470.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505012.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505007.xml; en-US; 21877; 2014-12-08
T505004.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505000.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505005.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505001.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505006.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505002.xml; en-US; 18260; 2014-10-06

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Corporate Headquarters

last page

FLIR Systems, Inc.
27700 SW Parkway Ave.
Wilsonville, OR 97070
USA
Telephone: [phone]

Website

http://www.flir.com

Customer support

http://support.flir.com

Copyright

© 2015, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide.

Disclaimer

Specifications subject to change without further notice. Models and accessories subject to regional market considerations. License procedures may apply. Products
described herein may be subject to US Export Regulations. Please refer to [e-mail] with any questions.

Publ. No.: T559918
Release: AE
Commit:
Head: 23547
Language: en-US
Modified: 2015-02-27
Formatted: 2015-03-03

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