Games PC EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II User Manual

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Games PC EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II User Manual

U S E R M A N U A L

 

 

EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II

 

 

 

 

 

CONTENTS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

6

 

 

INSTALLING THE GAME

6

 

 

Game Settings

6

 

 

TECHNICAL SUPPORT

6

 

 

GETTING STARTED

7

 

 

TUTORIAL

7

 

 

CHOOSING A SCENARIO

7

 

 

Options

8

 

 

HOW TO WIN

8

 

 

Standard

8

 

 

Power Struggle

9

 

 

Conquest

9

 

 

Mission

9

 

 

MULTIPLAYER

9

 

 

Connection types

9

 

 

Checking the IP address

10

 

 

VIEWING THE WORLD

10

 

 

MAP VIEWS

10

 

 

Normal mapmode

11

 

 

Political mapmode

11

 

 

Economic mapmode

11

 

 

Religious mapmode

11

 

 

Diplomatic mapmode

11

 

 

Trade mapmode

11

 

 

Colonization mapmode

11

 

 

Fog of war

12

 

 

Terrain and Weather

12

 

 

INFORMATION WINDOWS

12

 

 

The bar above the map

12

 

 

The shields above the Information window

12

 

 

Province and city information

13

 

 

COUNTRIES AND PROVINCES

13

 

 

Countries

13

 

 

Provinces

14

 

 

Cities and Capitals

15

 

 

Settlements

15

 

 

Sea Zones

15

 

 

TERRA INCOGNITA

16

 

 

ARMIES & NAVIES

16

 

 

OVERVIEW

16

 

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EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II

Selecting and ordering Units

17

Fleets and Sea Transport

17

Loading of Army Units onto a Fleet

18

Unloading an Army Unit from a Fleet

18

ARMIES

18

Army movement

19

Presence of the enemy

19

Recruitment

20

Maintenance cost

20

Fortifications

20

FLEETS

21

Fleet Movement

22

Naval Interception

22

Ports

22

Ship building

23

Maintenance cost

23

BUILDING/RECRUITING CAPACITY

23

Province limit

24

Improvements

24

COMMANDERS

24

Specialists

25

HOSTILE ACTIONS

25

Combat Morale

26

Pitched Battles

26

Naval Battles

27

Retreat

27

Naval Blockades

28

Sieges

29

Assaults

29

ATTRITION

29

Land

30

Sea

30

SUPPLY LINES

30

Pillaged Provinces

31

ECONOMY

31

OVERVIEW

31

External Factors

32

Managing your Resources

32

The Financial Summary

32

The Budget

33

PROVINCES AND POPULATION GROWTH

33

Increase

34

Decrease

34

Instant changes

34

Population and income

34

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EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II

 

 

 

 

 

STABILITY

35

 

 

FACTORS THAT LOWER STABILITY

36

 

 

FACTORS THAT INCREASE STABILITY

38

 

 

What is affected by Stability?

38

 

 

LOANS

39

 

 

National loan

39

 

 

International loan

40

 

 

Repayments

40

 

 

BANKRUPTCY

40

 

 

INFLATION

41

 

 

Increasing factors

41

 

 

Decreasing factors

42

 

 

SOURCES OF INCOME

42

 

 

Annual income

43

 

 

Monthly income

43

 

 

Other income

43

 

 

Monthly expenses

44

 

 

War Taxes

44

 

 

PRODUCTION AND GOODS

44

 

 

Base value of goods

45

 

 

Supply and demand

45

 

 

Description and historical background

46

 

 

TRADE AND MERCHANTS

48

 

 

Centers of Trade (CoT)

49

 

 

Trade income

49

 

 

Merchants

50

 

 

Competition

50

 

 

INVESTMENTS

51

 

 

UPGRADING THE INFRASTRUCTURE

51

 

 

Public officials

51

 

 

Factories

51

 

 

TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT

53

 

 

Areas of Technology and Research.

53

 

 

Cultural Technology Groups

54

 

 

Investing in Stability

54

 

 

DIPLOMACY

55

 

 

Relations

55

 

 

Neighboring Countries

56

 

 

Diplomacy

56

 

 

Use of Diplomats

57

 

 

Improving Relations

57

 

 

War Affects Your Relations

58

 

 

Tolerance Affecting Your Relations

58

 

 

Other factors affecting Relations

59

 

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EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II

PROVOCATIONS

59

Insults

59

Claim their Throne

60

Warning

60

Proclaim guarantee

60

ECONOMIC AGREEMENTS

60

Refusal to Trade

60

Trade agreement

61

Loans

61

ALLIANCES

61

Royal Marriages

61

Military Alliance

61

Military access

63

Vassalage

63

Creating Vassals

64

Annexation

64

WAR AND PEACE

65

TO PREPARE FOR WAR

66

Casus Belli

66

Side effects of war

67

HOW TO START AND HOW TO END

67

War aims

68

War score

68

Peace negotiation

69

Military annexation

70

Peace treaty

70

Separate peace

70

RELIGION

71

State Religion

72

Provincial Religion

73

Religious Tolerance

73

Religion and international relations

73

Strategy

74

CONVERSIONS

74

Changing State Religion

75

Changing Provincial Religion

75

FOUR IMPORTANT EVENTS

76

Reformation

76

Jean Calvin

76

Council of Trent

77

The Edict of Tolerance

77

 

DOMESTIC POLICY

77

 

 

Plutocracy to Aristocracy

78

 

 

Decentralization to Centralization

78

 

 

Narrow-minded to Inventiveness

78

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4

 

 

EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II

 

 

 

 

 

Free Trade to Mercantilism

78

 

 

Defensive to Offensive Doctrine

79

 

 

Naval to Land

79

 

 

Quantity to Quality

79

 

 

Free Subjects to Serfdom

80

 

 

COLONIZATION

80

 

 

OVERVIEW

81

 

 

Receiving settlers

81

 

 

How to establish a settlement

81

 

 

SETTLEMENTS

82

 

 

Colonies

82

 

 

Trading posts

82

 

 

COLONIZATION OF THE NEW WORLD

83

 

 

Chances to succeed

83

 

 

Local inhabitants

84

 

 

Explorers and Conquistadors

84

 

 

COLONIAL STRATEGY

85

 

 

Protecting Your Colonies

85

 

 

REBELS & OTHER SCUM

86

 

 

REBELLIONS

86

 

 

Causes

86

 

 

Effects

87

 

 

Quelling rebellions

87

 

 

Liberation movements

87

 

 

PIRATES

88

 

 

Privateers

88

 

 

EVENTS & SPECIAL CASES

88

 

 

EVENTS

88

 

 

Historical events

89

 

 

The Treaty of Tordesillas — A Historical Event

89

 

 

THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

90

 

 

DEFENDER OF THE TRUE FAITH

91

 

 

MONARCHS

91

 

 

THE ARCHIVE

92

 

 

HOTKEYS

93

 

 

CREDITS

94

 

 

Strategy First

94

 

 

Distribution Infogrames Inc.

94

 

 

Paradox Entertainment

95

 

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EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II

INTRODUCTION

Europa Universalis is a real time strategy game that spans over 400 years, from the last decades of the Middle Ages, through the periods of the Great Voyages, the religious strife of the Reformation and the paradoxical Age of Enlightenment, and ending with the rise and fall of Napoleon. Just like their historical predecessors, the players can also set out to literally discover, conquer, and forever change the entire World.

INSTALLING THE GAME

The installation program of Europa Universalis starts automatically when the CD is inserted in your CD player. If your CD-ROM unit does not have the auto run function activated, you may start the installation by double clicking setup.exe, which you will find in the root directory of the CD.

As soon as the installation program has started, you may install Europa Universalis and, if necessary, DirectX 8.0, which is included on the CD. When the actual installation has begun, just follow the instructions on the screen.

If Europa Universalis is already installed on your computer just press “Play” in the autoplay menu to start. You may also start the program from a suitable button in the Program menu under the Start menu. You may uninstall Europa Universalis at any time by using either the Installation program or the Add and Remove program in the Control Panel.

Game Settings

Display settings - By clicking the EU2 settings icon located in the same place as the game, you can change the game’s resolution.

In-game music - You can turn the in-game music on or off.

Valkyrienet - You can chose which server to connect to when you want to use the Valkyrienet match-making servers.

TECHNICAL SUPPORT

Should you experience a technical problem concerning the operation of this product, please

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EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II

contact our technical support staff. Before you call, please read the README.TXT file on the EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II CD to see any last minute recommendations pertinent to your problem. Also, check out the Support page on our web site listed below. When you call, please be at your computer and have the following information available :

Computer make and model • Windows version • Total system RAM •

Total Hard Drive space • Video card make and model •

Phone#:

(514)

844-2433, Mon.-Fri. 10am-5pm EST

Fax#:

(514)

844-4337, Attn: Support

Internet e-mail:

support@strategyfirst.com

Strategy First Web Site: http://www.strategyfirst.com

Europa Universalis official web site:

http://www.europa-universalis.com

GETTING STARTED

TUTORIAL

If you haven’t played Europa Universalis before, we recommend that you play through the tutorial. Reading and understanding this manual will then become much easier. It consists of 9 short chapters, each designed to show a specific aspect of the game.

CHOOSING A SCENARIO

First, choose a scenario from the list at the left and then select the country that you want to play. The listed countries are usually those that have the best chances of success due to their relative strength, historical advantages, or geographical location. In some scenarios you can access even more countries to choose from.

Previously saved games are located below the scenarios and can be loaded by clicking on them.

Right clicking on a shield gives you the option to choose a different country than those

initially listed. This function is not available in all scenarios.

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EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II

Options

You can customize your game to a certain extent in the areas listed below:

Difficulty - affects the amount of money your country will start with, how much things will cost, how fast you will generate more money and the chances of success whenever luck is involved. Normal is the default value.

A. I. Aggressiveness - affects the eagerness for the computer nations to declare war, especially against the human players. Normal is the default value.

Game speed - this function can be accessed from within the game as well.

Fog of war - makes it harder to follow what the other countries are up to. Can be changed from within the game as well. On is the default value.

Forced annex - all countries (including yours) can lose their last province, forcing them out of the game. On is the default value.

Dynamic missions - the player can gain or lose victory points by trying to fulfill the missions of various characters. Off is the default value.

Base victory points - turning them off evens out the situation if the player chooses to play a very small country. On is the default value.

HOW TO WIN

The goal of the game may actually vary from player to player. The basics of the game are to receive as many victory points as possible. You score points whenever you are successful in your game play, for example by winning wars and battles, keeping your population happy, by creating diplomatic alliances, exploring unknown territories, building colonies, establishing merchants, etc. You will lose victory points if you fail in your attempts.

Standard

If you play using the "standard" victory conditions, the player with the highest total points becomes the winner, but note that at the end of the game you will see your country’s relative position based on how many victory point all countries have received. This means that you can play a country you find difficult to play just to try to get a better result from game to game, which is also a way of "winning." Another approach is to play Denmark, for example, and try to get more victory points

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EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II

than its perennial enemy Sweden.

Power Struggle

The country that is first to reach a predetermined number of victory points is the winner. Power Struggle is a good choice if you want to play a quick game.

Conquest

The country that conquers a predetermined number of provinces is the winner. You set the number when you determine victory conditions. Conquest is the number one choice if you wish to decide the outcome of the game on the battlefields.

Mission

Each country will receive a specific difficult mission, and the player that succeeds first is the winner. Various missions may include: Russia must conquer all orthodox provinces in the Balkans, or Spain must "conquer England." Mission is the choice for players who would like to try something random, yet challenging.

MULTIPLAYER

Players will require a minimum 56k Internet connection in order to join or host a multiplayer game. The host of a new game decides the scenario, victory conditions and game speed. He also saves the game. Note that events that would temporarily halt a single player game will not do so in multiplayer. Neither can you change game speed once the game has started.

There is a limited pause function in multiplayer. There is a delay of 10 seconds before the game pauses. 30 seconds after the game has come to halt, the other players can resume the game again.

Connection types

Local Network - Will automatically search your local network for any hosted game. You can then join any found game or host a new game yourself.

Valkyrienet - Here you can meet other players and chat with them, join their games or host a game

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EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II

for others to join.

Internet - You must know the IP address of the host in order to join a game. To check your IP address, follow the instructions below. Note that unless you have a permanent connection, your IP address will most probably change every time you connect to the Internet.

Checking the IP address

1.Make sure you are connected to the Internet

2.Under the start-menu, choose Run.

Win95/98/Me

3.Type winipcfg and click OK. Your IP address is displayed

Win2000/NT

4.Type cmd and click OK.

5.In the new window type ipconfig and press ENTER. Your IP address is displayed

VIEWING THE WORLD

You lead a country, or more precisely, you are a country, and all of the provinces within the borders of your country belong to you. You also have access to army units (symbolized by small soldiers) and fleets (symbolized by small warships), which you can move around on the map. By clicking a province you get access to information about it in the "information window" on the left side of the screen. Here you are able to construct army units and fleets, invest in infrastructure, and many other things. Exactly what you are able to do and how to do it will be discussed in greater detail later on.

MAP VIEWS

The game is played on a world map. You can’t see everything on the map at the same time, only the provinces and sea zones familiar to your country. In order to find out more you need to gradually explore the unknown parts. You have several settings to choose from depending on what kind of information you want to gather from the map.

Right clicking on the small map will let you choose a type of unit or province that will be

indicated with a red dot.

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EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II

Normal mapmode

Accessed through the tree icon. The standard view, which we will call the normal map, shows each province with its name, its type of terrain, whether it contains cities, colonies, or trading posts, and whether it is winter or summer in the provinces. It will also show land boundaries between countries. In the sea zones you will see what the weather is like.

Political mapmode

Accessed through the flag icon. Here the countries are shown in different colors. By placing the hand on a country, a popup window provides a diplomatic summary. The provinces containing small variants of your country’s shield are your core provinces.

Economic mapmode

Accessed through the coin icon. Shows the main resource produced in each province. The darker the green color is, the richer is the province. By clicking a province you will highlight all provinces with the same resource. If you choose any of your own provinces or click on the resource icon in the province window, you will get information about the corresponding resource.

Religious mapmode

Accessed through the missionary icon. You are given information about the state religion of all countries, as well as provinces with a different religion than the state. The different religions are shown in different colors. If you own a province with a different religion and have a missionary available, you can send him to the province in an attempt to convert them.

It is in this mode that you can see the members and extent of the Holy Roman Empire (see chapter “Events and special cases”).

Diplomatic mapmode

Accessed through the pen and letter icon. Here you will find all of your foreign relations, and by clicking a province of another country you are shown the foreign relations of that country. Red indicates hostile countries or countries where you have a legitimate reason, Casus Belli, to declare war upon, while green are friendly ones. Note that this is the map you will be using when you wish to perform diplomatic actions.

Trade mapmode

Accessed through the gold bars and crates icon. Each province belongs to a Center of Trade that is specified by different colors. The corresponding center is shown when a province is chosen. This mapmode is used when you deploy merchants.

Colonization mapmode

Accessed through the ship icon. This map is used when sending out settlers to claim new land for your country. Available provinces are shown in green colors; light greens indicate that they can be colonized by any country, medium greens are your provinces with existing trading posts, and dark green indicates your existing colonies or colonial cities.

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Fog of war

Note that a shade covering the majority of the map in the normal mapmode prevents you from viewing foreign armies in the provinces, or fleets in the sea zones. Areas not covered by the shade include your own country and the adjoining provinces and sea zones, your vassals, the countries of your allies, countries in which your monarch has entered royal marriages, provinces or sea zones containing your military units, as well as provinces or sea zones adjacent to your forces.

Terrain and Weather

The game contains five different types of terrain: open terrain, forest, mountains, desert, and swamp. There is also one geographical obstacle: rivers. The terrain types affect the movement of army units, battles, and army unit attrition. Some provinces also suffer the effects of winter, which in turn affect the various terrain types.

Sea zones are also affected by the weather. Certain sea zones may be ravaged by storms, or be covered by ice during parts of the year. Note also that attrition is lower in sea zones next to coastal provinces, compared with the open sea.

INFORMATION WINDOWS

The bar above the map

On the top line above the Map window, you will find a border with four symbols and a date – the game clock – followed by another four symbols. The first four show how many Merchants, Colonists, Diplomats and Missionaries you have available. The date is shadowed whenever you pause the game, and white when time is running. If you think that the "progress of time" is too fast or too slow, you may change it by clicking the menu button at the lower left of the Information window, choosing option, and then following the instructions or press Ctrl + (numeric keypad) to increase the game speed and Ctrl – (numeric keypad) to decrease the game speed. The four symbols to the right of the date show the Stability level of your country, the Manpower in thousands of soldiers, the contents of your treasury expressed in Ducats (one of the most common currencies during the historical epoch), and a clock that allows you to pause the game by clicking it. You will receive more background information if you point at the symbols.

If you place the pointer above any of the icons in the bar, you get information about how many you receive annually, and what generates them.

The shields above the Information window

The embellished line above the Information window contains five coats of arms. If you left click on any of these, specialized information will be shown in the Information window. The shields will

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EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II

provide the following information (from left to right): naval information, land army information, general information about the country and its monarch, the state budget, and the financial summary.

The military information shows among other things your current level of technology and your research for the next. A slider allows you to adjust your maintenance cost.

The economic information will show the income and expenditures of your country, including how they are allocated. You may also choose how to allocate your research investments in order to develop your technology levels.

Province and city information

When you left click on one of your provinces, you will see the city in the information window. By clicking on buildings and objects, you get additional information about them. The buildings are the places where the various officials of your province work. The officials may be appointed by clicking the buildings, which will give you more advantages in the game. You may also build fleets, recruit army units, and upgrade the fortress.

In addition to the buildings of the province you also see another shield. The shield shows the most important products of the province, including provincial revenue from trade and taxes. When you appoint officials, for example, you will find that these revenues increase.

The building of worship (church, mosque, temple, etc.) will be upgraded automatically when the population of the province increases. If you left click the church you will find general information about the state of your province. You can get additional information from the text lines by keeping the hand on them. You may also click on the symbols to get additional information about the economy and religion.

COUNTRIES AND PROVINCES

If you right-click on a message box or in the log, you can decide how this type of message will be displayed in the future.

Countries

Each player runs a country. Each country consists of one or several provinces. Your country has a border marked on the map, and if you wish to view the political map, the provinces of each

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EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II

country are marked with the same color. Each country has a monarch, a state religion, and one or more central cultures. Most of the countries are located in Europe but there are several non-European countries spread out in the world that can be played as well. Each scenario defines the countries you are allowed to play.

Provinces

There are two types of political status for the provinces. They either belong to a country, or they are independent. Independent provinces only exist outside of Europe, and are populated by natives, organizing their societies through clan and tribal systems instead of nations. The independent provinces do not have standing army units; instead native war bands will meet you if you move an army unit into the province. When a colony or a trading post is established, the province is no longer considered independent.

The country a province belongs to is noted by the flag waving above the city, the colony, or the trading post. During times of peace you may only move your army units from and to provinces belonging to your own country, or into independent provinces. During times of war you may also move army units into provinces belonging to allied countries and dependent states, and into countries with which you are at war.

Settlements are provinces that lack a city, but have either a colony or a trading post. One basic difference between a province with a city and a province with a settlement is that you can build ships and raise army units in the former, appointing officials, building fortifications and establishing factories. You may not do any of this in a province with a settlement.

A coastal province is a province with a port. Note that in order to have a port the province must either have a city or a colony; a trading post is not sufficient. Having coastal provinces also affects the number of colonists and merchants your country will receive each year. Also note that ships do not suffer attrition when in port, because they can be maintained. If you have a large country with provinces on several continents, you will do better if you have ports in as many places as possible, in order to send your ships in to port now and then, to avoid suffering attrition (See

Attrition).

The provinces you start the game with are your core provinces and your most important ones. Core provinces are marked on the political map with small shields.

Note that a province may belong to one country, but may be controlled by another. This happens when two countries are at war with each other, and one of the countries has occupied a province belonging to the other country. When peace has been declared, all controlled provinces return to the original owner, unless they have been surrendered as part of the peace treaty. There are two exceptions. The other exception applies if rebels manage to seize one of your provinces. The province still belongs to you, but the rebels control it. If another country controls any of your provinces, you will not receive any income from these provinces. You will see that a province is controlled by another country if the flag of another country is flying above the city, the colony or the trading posts. (Rebels fly a red and black flag.) In order to take control of a province you must capture the city, either by assault or siege. Provinces with cities lacking fortifications, and provinces with colonies or trading posts, are automatically controlled when you move an army unit into them.

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EUROPA UNIVERSALIS II

Cities and Capitals

A capital is shown on the map by the disc behind it. The province with your capital may not be surrendered during peace negotiations other than by annexation of the entire country. The city shows a graphic representation of the level of development of your province. What you see in the information window is a picture of the city as you build ships, raise army units, upgrade buildings, and build factories. The population level of your city indicates the wealth of your province. Normally the population of the city will increase over time, but it may also drop because of war, rebellions, random events, and if the city is situated in an area of adverse geographical conditions, for example in the African tropics. When a colony has 700 inhabitants it develops into a city.

Through the Menu you can customize all types of messages.

Settlements

When you have established a trading post or a colony in a province you gain ownership of the province. This means that no other country may use the province for troop movements during peace, and no other country may establish trading posts or colonies in the province. You may lose your settlement, and thereby the province, either through negative population growth, hostile actions by the local natives, or by ceding the province to another country as part of a peace treaty. During war you may also lose a trading post because an enemy army decided to burn it to the ground.

The difference between a trading post and a colony is that the trading post provides a low production value and a high trading value, while the colony provides a high production value and a low trading value. In addition, the colony has population growth and may be developed into a city, while a trading post does not have population growth, nor may it be developed into a province with a city. You may still change your trading posts into a colony by sending colonists but the other way around is not possible.

Sea Zones

Sea zones are not owned by any country. Instead, the struggle concerns the shipping lanes. Anyone who is able to stop others from using the shipping lanes therefore exerts a certain influence.

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TERRA INCOGNITA

Historically, there were several areas that were not discovered until after the end of the game’s time span (such as some parts of Siberia and Australia), or which had been discovered earlier, but where all knowledge about them had faded into legend (such as the interior of Africa), and finally areas which could not be explored using the technology of the times (such as certain Northern sea routes).

The white and unknown parts of the map are called "Terra Incognita," which is simply "The Unknown World" in Latin - the language of knowledge and science during this age.

Terra Incognita represents provinces and sea zones not yet discovered by your country. When these are discovered, either by moving army units or ships through them, or by trading maps with other countries, the areas cease to be Terra Incognita and become part of the known world, as your country knows it. Note that you normally need a Conquistador, or you must have reached Land Military level 31 in order to discover provinces. For undiscovered sea zones you need an Explorer or you must have reached Naval Technology level 21.

Permanent Terra Incognita represents undiscovered areas not consisting of provinces or sea zones. Permanent Terra Incognita comprises the areas that were not explored at all at this time.

ARMIES & NAVIES

OVERVIEW

Battles and movement are the tactical components of warfare. During the period, battle and movement could often be decisive for the outcome of a war. A single pitched battle or a naval battle could save the existence and independence of an entire country. If the Spanish Armada had not foundered in 1588, England probably would have become a vassal state of Spain, just like Portugal. If the Ottoman Empire had won outside of Vienna in 1683, Europe, as we now know it, most likely would not have existed. Another immensely important factor was how efficiently a military unit could be moved. Poland-Lithuania defended their giant commonwealth by dashing about with their incredibly mobile armies: one moment to the coast of the Black Sea; the next to the Baltic; the next to the Ukraine, winning battles in the meantime.

You may move two kinds of military units in the game: army units and fleets. There are three kinds of battle: Pitched Battles, Sieges, and Naval Battles. All of this will be thoroughly covered in this chapter.

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By holding down the “SHIFT” key while right clicking, you can specify an exact path for your units.

Selecting and ordering Units

In addition to left clicking a unit, you may also keep the left mouse button pressed and drag a box around the unit. You know that a unit is selected when a green circle surrounds it, and you see an elongated rectangle at the base of the unit. The morale of the unit is indicated by the colors red, yellow, or green. A newly recruited unit always starts at the lowest possible morale. It will then increase month by month to the maximum level allowed by your technology level. The Information window provides additional information about the chosen unit, such as unit commander, strength, and attrition. You may also split the unit into two parts, merge units by first choosing all units in a province, and also reorganize – or customize – your units. Finally, you may opt to disband the unit.

When you have right clicked the area you want to move your army unit into, the unit will start marching/sailing. You also see a green arrow showing the direction of the movement path. If you wish to do something else for a moment, such as take care of your province, you will see the green arrow if you choose the unit again.

Fleets and Sea Transport

The fleet is a military unit consisting of a varying number of ships in the same way that an army unit consists of a varying number of troops. There are three types of ship in the game: Warships, Galleys, and Transport Vessels. Warships have a transport capacity of 1; galleys have a transport capacity of 0.5, and transport vessels a capacity of 2. What is transport capacity? Each army unit has a weight; the transport capacity of your fleet indicates how many troops you are able to transport. Cavalry and artillery have greater weight than infantry. The total weight of each army unit and the transport capacity of the fleet can be found in the Information window whenever you have selected a unit.

War ships are more effective in battle, galleys are the least expensive, and transport vessels have the largest transport capacity. Galleys should be kept in the Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf or the Black Sea, as this ship type is less useful on the open sea.

Merging, splitting, reorganizing, and dissolving fleets is done in exactly the same way as army units are merged, etc.

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To load an army on a fleet, give it a movement command to the sea zone where the fleet is. If the fleet is in port, you must first send it to sea. It is faster to embark from and disembark to provinces with ports than those without.

Loading of Army Units onto a Fleet

First you need to order your fleet into a sea zone, and then order an army unit in an adjacent province to load onto the fleet. You cannot load the fleet while in port since armies automatically debark ships in ports.

When the troops are loaded you will find a new button in the information window when you choose the fleet. Click this button when you want to unload the army unit in another adjacent province.

Unloading an Army Unit from a Fleet

Choose the fleet and click the unloading button. You will now see the army unit on the map. Now click the province where you wish to unload your army unit. The troops will now start marching to the province. If a fleet transporting army units is sent to port the army units will be unloaded instantly and automatically in that province.

ARMIES

As has already been mentioned, there are three branches of the army that may be included in the army unit: infantry, cavalry and artillery.

The basis of the field army was the infantry, the cheapest one to recruit, and was also easier to train but which often lacked the firepower to make it the decisive factor in a battle. The cavalry, as the successor of the knight, was the "army branch of the nobility," a status it was to hold until a long time after the period covered by this game. The cavalry was the principal actor of the battleground and lacked all firepower, but made up for this by its strong shock effect with the ability to quickly shatter the morale of the enemy, if it was employed efficiently.

In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the emphasis was shifted from shock effect to firepower in the armies of Europe. The infantry became the equal of the cavalry, although the two forces served different purposes during a battle. The artillery had become lighter, and thereby more mobile, and was also beginning to be utilized as relief for the infantry in battles.

During the 18th century, another shift in focus of battle efficiency took place. Drill and discipline had been established in the European armies, thereby making it possible for the infantry firepower to be utilized more efficiently. Infantry became more important on the field of battle than cavalry, even though the cavalry still played a very important operational role, being the most efficient branch for reconnaissance purposes during the period. In addition, the cavalry was still the only fast, long-range branch of the army, which made it

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indispensable in deep-going wars such as those in Russia, Poland, and the Middle East.

At the end of the 15th century, artillery was chiefly used in sieges. Cannons were usually very heavy and immobile and seldom of much use in a pitched battle. The efficiency of the artillery improved markedly during the 17th century, and was organized in batteries with a direct fire effect against infantry on the battlefield. Efficiently utilized artillery could be the decisive factor of a battle, simply because the heavy artillery fire could shatter morale in a wing or even a flank, an advantage that was then used by sending a cavalry shock against the shaken, retiring infantrymen.

In a field army, the infantry is slower than the cavalry but faster than the artillery. The cavalry is less economical and takes longer to train; however, it is the fastest unit, extremely maneuverable, and can have an enormous shock effect in the heat of battle. On the other hand it is less serviceable in a siege. The infantry, together with the artillery, serves as garrisons for fortifications.

Use SHIFT + click on the units’ bars to select exactly the units you want. Useful if you want to merge some specific units in a stack.

Army movement

When you order an army unit to move, i.e., give it marching orders, there is no distance limit from the unit’s current location and your desired destination. The unit will start moving toward the destination at the speed of its slowest army branch. For instance, if you have a unit consisting of infantry, cavalry, and artillery, the whole unit will move as slowly as if it only consisted of artillery. The nature of the terrain the unit is moving through or crossing will also affect its speed. It takes 25% longer to march through woods and deserts, 50% longer through swamps and 75% longer through mountains compared with open terrain. The presence of snow will decrease the speed even further, as will movements into undiscovered provinces.

In times of peace, you may move your army units both through your own provinces and those of your vassals. When you are at war, you may also move through the provinces of your allies.

Presence of the enemy

If an enemy army unit should move into a province through which your unit is moving, the unit will stop immediately and a battle will take place. If your army unit should lose, it will retreat. You cannot influence where it will retreat, as the commander automatically will move into a neighboring province, giving preference to provinces that you control.

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If your army unit wins the battle, the enemy will retreat while your unit continues moving. Thus, two army units from enemy armies may never stand still in the same province after a pitched battle, unlike units from allied countries.

You can move freely through unfortified and fortified enemy provinces, provided that you detach a troop to watch the fortification. After detaching a troop, the main part of your unit may march on. To detach a troop for guard purposes, click on that button in the information window.

Recruitment

The time it takes to recruit a unit varies between the different branches, partly because the time it takes to train an efficient army unit varies, and partly because the setup of the unit demands several kinds of specialized equipment. To simplify, we can say that artillery units take the longest to recruit, followed by the cavalry, and then the infantry.

The cost of recruitment depends upon a number of factors. Firstly, different kinds of troops cost different amounts. Artillery is the most expensive, followed by cavalry, and then the relatively inexpensive infantry. Secondly, the cost is dependent on which country is recruiting the troops. Different countries had different traditions when it came to choosing army branches and the composition of army units. Some countries, for instance, chose quality above quantity. Thirdly, the cost will vary depending on which level of military technology your country possesses. In general, troops get more expensive the higher your military technology level is, since a higher level of technology means costlier training and more expensive equipment. Infantry and cavalry are recruited in units of 1000 men and artillery in units of 10 pieces.

Maintenance cost

The maintenance of your army units is paid monthly. By accessing your country’s Financial Summary you’ll be able to see how large the sum is compared with your other expenses. You may change the maintenance payments of your country by accessing the army information window, where you may choose what percentage of the maintenance you wish to pay. The payment must be at least 50% of the actual costs. The size of the maintenance is also based on the total size of your armies and whether this exceeds your national supportable amount. You may disband army units to reduce the cost of maintenance. Note that your morale will be adversely affected if you pay less than 100% maintenance.

Fortifications

The importance of fortifications cannot be overestimated. A hostile army unit automatically controls a province without a fortress as soon as it has moved into the province. A province with a fortress, however, must either be put under siege or assaulted. Sieges may take a long time; anywhere from three months up to a year is common. The assault may be quick, but usually with great loss of life.

The basic cost for erecting fortifications is 100 ducats, but the price may be higher depending on the country’s level of inflation. You may also upgrade existing fortresses to more modern and larger models, but in order to do that you must achieve a certain level of military technology.

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FLEETS

As has already been mentioned, a fleet may include three kinds of vessels: warships, transports, and galleys. Warships are oceangoing, heavily armed vessels, representing a number of different sizes and designs. Your level of naval technology is the determining factor. Galleys also represent different sizes, levels of armament and designs, but they differ from warships in that they are less seaworthy on the open sea, and their strength relative to the warship diminishes over time. Their advantage lies in being cheaper to build. Transports are a jumble of different designs, differentiated, like the other types of vessels, by your naval technology level.

Contrary to the condition on land, you cannot control the ocean; you can only try to prevent the enemy from controlling the shipping lanes. Naval warfare was conducted in a fundamentally different way from the battle on land, and reaching what is sometimes known as domination of the seas was a lengthy process. We will attempt to explain this.

Firstly, it was important to defend coastlines and the strategic and important passages that needed to be used. Enemy fleets could not be allowed to cruise off a country’s own coast, as this could mean a sudden landing with disastrous consequences; England lived under this threat for many years, mainly from Spain and France. Moreover, a country could have a narrow canalizing passage such as the English Channel, the control over which would give economic advantages and would minimize the risk of having part of the country cut off from the rest.

To defend a coast from a nearby enemy fleet, it was necessary to go out to sea, find the enemy, and attack, thus forcing him back to his own waters. This is where interception is important. Since the sea zones were so large, and a fleet could only control a small area physically, it was never certain that a naval battle would occur. Many times, two enemy fleets would keep sailing back and forth looking for each other for a long time without having a decisive battle.

Each fleet actually consists of a main part and several smaller patrols. When the patrols discovered enemy ships, the main part of the fleet was assembled to deal with the enemy fleet. The main problem was finding the enemy and creating local superiority. If you did not succeed the engagement was called off.

After having successfully chased an enemy fleet away to their own port, the defending fleet would then cruise outside the enemy coast or try to blockade the enemy ports. When a majority of the enemy fleets were eradicated or in blockade, naval supremacy was achieved.

When a fleet with the Patrol box checked reaches its destination, it will return to its original position and then start over again.

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Fleet Movement

Fleets are moved in the same way as army units, the only difference being that the sea zones through which the fleet moves don’t belong to anybody. If you move through a zone where an enemy fleet is located, an attempt at naval interception will occur (see Naval Interception). If the enemy fleet does not succeed with the interception, you will keep moving. If he succeeds or if you deliberately end your movement in that zone, a naval battle will take place. Ports do not count as sea zones, and no interception or naval battle can take place against a fleet in port. However, it may be blockaded if the level of naval technology is sufficiently advanced (see Naval Blockades and Ports).

The speed of warships and transports increases with higher technology while that of galleys remains constant. Bad weather, ice and undiscovered sea zones decrease the speed of fleets.

Naval Interception

When your fleet gets into the same sea zone as an enemy fleet, there is always a chance of a successful interception and an ensuing battle. What happens depends on what respective levels of naval technology the combatants possess, how skilled the commanders are in maneuvering their vessels, and a considerable portion of luck. Luck in this context is all about how the wind blows. The one in the right quarter of the wind usually had the decisive advantage in the era of sailing ships. Note that fleets cruising outside their own coast receive a bonus when intercepting, and that interceptions in certain coastal provinces (Scania, Zealand, the Bosphorus, Gibraltar, and Tangiers) always succeed, due to the tactical advantages for the fleet controlling these constricted passages.

The sea zones next to a country’s provinces are its national waters. Naval attrition will be minimal here.

Ports

It has already been stated that certain provinces—coastal provinces—possess ports. You may send a fleet into one of your own ports (i.e., a port in your own country) at any time providing that you control the province where the port is located. You may also send your fleets into the ports of allied countries provided that the country in question controls the province where the port is, and that your country and the allied country together are at war with another country.

Why would you want to send your fleet into port? Firstly, a fleet in port may never be attacked by an enemy fleet, which means that it can be tactically sound to send a fleet into port if the enemy’s naval strength is superior to yours. Secondly, fleets don’t suffer attrition in port, which

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means that it is advisable to send a fleet into port from time to time. Note that if an enemy army unit takes control of a province in which there is a port where you have a fleet, the fleet is automatically forced out of the port into the nearest sea zone. If there is an enemy fleet there, a naval battle will take place.

Ship building

Building times vary between the different types of vessels, due to their different levels of advancement. Generally, the higher the level of naval technology a country possesses, the longer it will take to build a vessel. One rule of thumb is that warships take the longest to build, followed by transports, and then galleys.

The cost of building a vessel depends upon a number of factors. Firstly, different kinds of vessels always vary in cost. Warships are the most expensive, followed by transports, and galleys are the cheapest. Secondly, the cost is dependent on which country builds the vessels. Different countries had different naval traditions about the composition of fleets. Some countries, for instance, chose quality above quantity. Note that galleys can only be built in ports along the Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, the Red Sea, and the Gulf of Persia, which means that countries by these seas will have naval traditions including the employment of galley fleets. Thirdly, the cost will vary depending on the level of naval technology your country possesses. In general, vessels become more expensive the higher your naval technology level is, since a higher level of technology entails more expensive training and equipment. All vessels are built in units of one ship, although certain coastal provinces can build more than one at a time.

Maintenance cost

The maintenance of your fleets is paid monthly. By accessing your country’s Financial Summary you can see how large the sum is compared with your other expenses. You may change the maintenance payments of your country by accessing the naval information window, where you may choose what percentage of the maintenance you wish to pay. The payment must be at least 50% of the actual costs. The size of the maintenance is also based on the size of your fleets; if you have 72 vessels you’ll have to pay twice as much as if you’d had 36 vessels. You may disband fleets to reduce the cost of maintenance. Note that your morale will be adversely affected if you pay less than 100% maintenance.

BUILDING/RECRUITING CAPACITY

Each country has a manpower base, limiting the possibility of recruiting army units. When you recruit army units you will see how your manpower base is lowered. Each unit of 1000 infantry, 1000 cavalry or 10 pieces of artillery lowers your manpower base 1 step. There are always a limited number of available young able-bodied men, and there is always a permanent demand for strong men and women if you want your farming to be handled properly in each village. This all means that there is a limit to how many soldiers you may recruit. Each province has a manpower value, showing how much it contributes to the armed forces of your country. The manpower base is computed as an annual sum, which increases as time passes. If your country has conquered new

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provinces or developed colonies into towns, your annual manpower base may increase. It will also increase as time passes because of a general population growth. Your manpower base may also drop if you lose provinces or suffer losses of population for any other reasons. Building ships for your fleets is not affected by your manpower base, as there was a relatively small demand for manpower, compared with the needs of the army units.

Province limit

There is also a local limitation, or recruitment capacity, when applied to the recruitment of army units or fleets. You recruit your army units in your provinces, which means that the level of development of each province limits each separate recruitment attempt. By appointing officials, upgrading fortifications, and building factories, you improve the recruitment capacity of each province. Note that the population level is the most important factor defining recruitment capacity. If you are raising an army unit or building a fleet in a province, you may not start recruiting a new unit or build a new fleet until the work in progress has been finished.

Improvements

If your country has reached a sufficiently high level of military or naval technology, you may increase the recruitment or building capacity by constructing conscription centers (military tech level 31) and naval shipyards (naval tech level 16). The conscription center is shown as a small military tent, and represents a number of administrative and economic functions in your province, making it easier to establish larger army units. The effect is a tenfold increase in the recruitment capacity of your province, and improved maintenance ability for any army unit in the province (see Maintenance, and Attrition). The province’s contribution to the recruitment capacity of your country is also greatly increased. The naval shipyard will change the port symbol of your province, making it larger and colored in gold. The naval shipyard is simply an improved shipyard, with the capacity to build all ship types at a much higher speed, a sort of "assembly line" production of the times. The naval shipyard increases the building capacity of your province tenfold. The first naval shipyard you build also provides one extra colonist each year.

COMMANDERS

If you reorganize a single unit, a new one with a general commander will always be created. If your single unit contains more than one historical commander, use the split button to assign them to different units.

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A commander leads each army unit or fleet. Commanders have a very large impact on battles (see Pitched Battles and Naval Battles), exploration, and attrition. Commanders are historical or general. The former are well-known generals and admirals who worked during the period and who are regarded as particularly interesting, either because of their skills or their imperfections in battle. The latter come from a "national pool" and have names from history, but none of them were distinguished enough to become historically important. They are something of a cheaper article, but they still mirror the state of training and skill of the country’s body of officers.

An army unit or a fleet may have more than one commander, but only one of them will command the unit; this will be the highest-ranking commander, who is also the only one who will add anything to the battle. Note that you may split a unit if you want to take advantage of more than one good commander.

Commanders may die in battles or through random events. If a commander dies in a battle, the second-highest ranking commander will automatically assume command of the army unit or fleet. If the unit or fleet only had one historical commander, a general commander will immediately assume command.

All commanders are assigned a value in each of the skills of Maneuver, Firing, Shock Effect/Boarding, and Siege. Note that each commander is either an army or a navy commander. General commanders always have the same values, depending on their country of origin. Their values may never exceed 4 (2 for the siege value) or go below 0. Historical commanders have unique values that may be much more varied.

Specialists

There are also two kinds of specialists: Conquistadors and Explorers. They function like commanders, but also possess some special functions.

Conquistadors lead army units and receive a special bonus for exploring new provinces. They also receive a special bonus when battling natives, and a very high capacity for maintenance (i.e., small risk of attrition).

Explorers lead fleets and have a special bonus for exploring new sea zones and bordering provinces. Like the Conquistadors, they have a very high capacity for maintenance (i.e., small risk of attrition).

HOSTILE ACTIONS

Battles occur when two or more enemy units find themselves in the same province/sea zone. A pitched battle may also occur when an army unit moves into an independent province and encounters a band of natives. You will then see two fighting soldiers/ships, symbolizing the two sides of the battle. Each unit has a long rectangle. The color of the rectangles shows the level of morale and how it changes during the battle. The length of the rectangles shows the size of the unit in proportion to the enemy unit, and how the size changes when the unit sustains casualties. The battle is divided into phases that will continue until one of the sides loses the battle and retreats. Note that you can’t control the action during the phases, except for making a voluntary retreat.

The side that either loses its morale and thereby flees (or withdraws, see Retreat) or loses all

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its soldiers/ships has been defeated. Note that either side may choose to withdraw at any time by giving the unit a movement command to another province/zone. Retreating units will carry a white flag.

Mercenaries appear instantly and at full morale. They don’t affect your manpower as normal builds do.

Combat Morale

Combat morale is an important factor in battle. If the army unit’s or fleet’s combat morale falls to the lowest level during combat, then it will lose the battle. Each army unit and fleet has a combat morale value, shown as a narrow rectangle at the base of the unit. This indicates the unit’s morale in the scale red-yellow-green. A newly recruited or assembled unit always starts its career with the lowest possible morale. It increases each month until it reaches the maximum level possible allowed by your current level of technology.

The combat morale depends on the naval and land military level of technology, respectively, that your country has achieved. The higher the technology level, the higher the combat morale. There are some special cases.

Firstly, countries with a Reformed, Hindu, or Shia Moslem state religion experience a bonus in combat morale. Secondly, the combat morale in your country decreases for several years if it has suffered bankruptcy. Thirdly, the morale is lower if you pay less than 100 % of the cost of maintenance. Fourthly, fleets consisting only of transport ships have a very low combat morale. Finally, galleys always suffer a low combat morale and are not affected by improvements in naval military technology.

Note that a unit whose combat morale has decreased will recover each month, eventually returning to its maximum morale. It may therefore be tactically sound to wait a period before using a unit with low morale to attack and thereby allow it to "take the bull by the horns" when it is fully recovered.

Pitched Battles

What determines the outcome of a battle? Firstly, the odds, i.e. the relative strength between the army units, are extremely important. Secondly, the difference in level of military technology is very important. Thirdly, the commander is important since his skills of movement, fire, and shock effect will influence the phases of the battle. Furthermore, the outcome of the battle is affected by the side that has cavalry superiority. This will give the commander scouting information that he

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may use while commanding the battle, as well as an effective force to send against retreating enemies. Note that cavalry superiority loses its importance in provinces with forests, swamps, and mountains. Finally, the invader will receive a negative bonus when attacking in a mountain province, across a river, or when disembarking in a province containing a hostile army unit.

If you win the battle, the enemy will withdraw and you may either move your army to another province or you may choose to begin a siege or assault against any fortifications in the province where the army unit is standing.

The defeated party in a battle withdraws from the province, preferably to a province controlled by its own country or an ally, and which does not contain any hostile army units.

The attacker is always on the left part of the screen, the defender on the right. The needle points towards the stronger side, weighting in current strength, technology, morale, leaders and terrain.

Naval Battles

What determines the outcome of a naval battle? Firstly the odds, i.e., the relative difference in strength between the fleets, are immensely important. Secondly, the difference in naval technology levels is very important. Thirdly the commander is important, as his skill value in maneuvering, firing, and boarding will influence the phases of the battle. Fourthly, the outcome of the battle is influenced by the side that has utilized wind conditions most efficiently, for which your commander is responsible. You cannot influence this, but note that only one side will get the bonus for wind conditions. Warships will fight less effectively when there is no wind at all, giving Galleys a distinct advantage during these conditions. This penalty is decreased as technology is advanced.

If you win the battle, the enemy will retreat and you may either move your fleet to another sea zone or, if you wish and possess the naval technology for it, begin a naval blockade; or simply cruise in the sea zone.

The loser of a naval battle must retreat from the sea zone. If the enemy originally tried to force himself out of a blockaded port, his fleet will retreat to the same port, or else it will retreat to the sea zone which is closest to one of the country’s own or allied ports, and which does not contain an enemy fleet.

Retreat

Retreat will occur if either of two conditions are present: when your army or fleet is defeated in a pitched battle or naval battle, or when, during a pitched battle or naval battle, you order your army or fleet to move away from the province where the battle is taking place, i.e. voluntary retreat.

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Note that if an army is defeated in a pitched battle or if a fleet is defeated in a naval battle it must withdraw. If, for some reason, there is no province or sea zone to withdraw to, the unit will be destroyed.

When a fleet or army withdraws, the unit’s flag will be exchanged for a white flag, thus marking that you are no longer in control of the unit, that it will not affect the province it withdraws to, and that it is increasingly vulnerable if attacked by the enemy.

When a withdrawing army or fleet arrives in a province or sea zone free of hostile units, the unit’s flag reverts to the flag of its country, the player regains control over the unit, and morale will slowly recover.

Note that it is tactically sound to pursue a withdrawing enemy and immediately resume the pitched battle or naval battle, thus using the advantage of your unit’s superior morale.

For every enemy port you blockade with your fleet, the enemy will lose a part of his trade income. A besieged city with a port will fall much sooner if you also put a blockade on it. A blockaded port cannot serve as a supply source for overseas forces.

Naval Blockades

What is a naval blockade? A naval blockade means that you have a fleet in the sea zone adjacent to a port, and that your country has reached the right naval technology level. Your fleet automatically blockades every enemy port bordering on the sea zone. Your fleet will patrol the entrance of the port and thus prevent ships from leaving and calling at the port. A fleet blockading a port can be attacked both from other sea zones and from the port in question. The fleet will automatically receive the bonus for successfully utilizing wind conditions if it defends itself against the blockaded fleet.

When the icon of a besieged fortress starts burning, a breach has been struck in the wall. Not only will this speed up the siege process, it will also increase the chance to carry through a successful assault.

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Sieges

A siege commences after a victorious pitched battle in a fortified enemy province, or once an army unit is moved into a hostile province with a fortress but with no enemy army units present. In both cases the army unit must be of minimum size in order to initiate the siege. Normally the size should be equal to that of the unit stationed at the garrison.

Why would you want to besiege a fortress? This is your only opportunity to control the city and thereby the province. A controlled province gives you more points when you or your enemy offers peace. When preparing for a siege, you have a couple of options. Firstly, you may assign a watch detail. This makes it possible for you to maintain a supply line through the province, keep an eye on the fortress, and control the province. Secondly, you may assign the actual siege force. This force will subsequently attempt to take the city by building trenches that are successively extended and advanced, attempt to undermine the fortress walls using sappers, fire upon, and starve the garrison into surrendering.

Each month the garrison’s defenses are tested. If they fail, the fortress falls into your hands. Factors that affect this include how long the siege has been in place, the besieged commander’s siege experience, the province’s terrain (where the fortress is located), the relative difference in artillery, the size of the fortress, and earlier results.

A fortress usually falls sooner or later, but note that your enemy may send an army unit into the province, forcing you to fight and win a pitched battle in order to continue the siege. Another problem is attrition: If the size of your army unit becomes smaller than that of the forces defending the garrison, then the siege is lifted and you may only guard the fortress. You may of course move additional units into the province and resume the siege. Also note that at any time you may break off the siege in order to leave the province, or assault the fortress.

Assaults

It was noted earlier that an assault may turn out to be very bloody. An example of a failed assault is Charles X Gustavus’ attempted assault of Copenhagen in 1659. Assaults may also be successful. Assaulting after a few months’ siege is usually a good strategy. But the great loss in combat morale experienced after an assault makes you vulnerable to a quick counterattack that could completely wipe out a hitherto successful military operation.

To launch an assault, click on the assault button in the information window. The assault itself is similar to a pitched battle, with a few notable exceptions. The person launching the assault will win if the enemy’s garrison is completely wiped out or forced to retreat (which means it is disbanded). The terrain is of no consequence. Nor is cavalry used during an assault. If the assault is successful, the fortress’s level is lowered one step (e.g. from medium to small), although never so low that the province is left without a fortress. Finally, there is a risk that the town is plundered, which significantly reduces the population. Plunder is an abstract phase of the battle that can’t be seen, and the player cannot control it since it is the result of soldiers who run amuck.

ATTRITION

Army units were traditionally worn out more quickly than they are today. There wasn’t the

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